tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-31600556614146972792024-03-14T17:48:32.018+08:00Combined Bomber OffensiveAnglo-American offensive of strategic bombing during World War II in Europe.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger55125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-58919605249738064382016-10-26T15:42:00.001+08:002016-10-26T15:42:11.501+08:00Light Night-Striking Force of Mosquitoes<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The Light Night-Striking Force of Mosquitoes raided Berlin 170
times, thirty-six of these on consecutive nights. On 10 July the
Mosquitoes were on the ‘Milk Run’ again: Berlin or bust. Wing
Commander Steven D. Watts DSO DFC MiD the CO of 692 Squadron, was
shot down off Terschelling by Major Hans Karlowski of 2./NJG1. Watts
and his observer, Pilot Officer AA. Matheson DFM RNZAF were lost
without trace.<br />
<br />
The operational use of the Mosquito bomber had forced the
Nachtjagd to reconsider the Wilde Sau (Wild Boar) method to hunt the
high-performance aircraft at high altitude with Fw 190A-5s and A-6s
and Bf 109Gs with Neptun AI radar and a long-range fuel-tank.
Oberleutnant Fritz Krause, a Staffelkapitän in the experimental
I./NJGr10 at Berlin-Werneuchen commanded by Hauptmann Friedrich Karl
Müller132 whose main task this was, recalls:<br />
<br />
<i>The new Heinkel 219 two-motor night-hunter to combat the
Mosquito was not quite ready while the jet-hunter, the Me 262, was
not available in sufficient numbers. So the task of testing the new
methods fell mainly to one Staffel of the Wilde Sau. We had to meet
the two quite different uses of the Mosquito. Firstly, there was the
nightly raid to bomb Berlin and secondly their use as pathfinders at
high altitude in the Ruhr. Night after night, thirty to forty
Mosquitoes flew to Berlin and dropped bombs and the psychological
stress on the Berliners was considerable. Flak and searchlights were
moved to Berlin without having any considerable or lasting effect.
The Mosquitoes flew at altitudes above 30,000 ft and after crossing
the Elbe lost height to fly over Berlin at the highest possible speed
to avoid the concentrated flak. The direction of the flights across
Berlin was different with each operation.</i><br />
<br />
A number of different tactical methods using night-hunters was
tested but the following method, which I used with success, was the
most effective. When the first of the incoming Mosquitoes crossed the
Rhine, five single-engined hunters took off from Werneuchen and
climbed to orbiting positions at 35,000ft in the NE, NW, SE, SW and
the centre of Berlin, each position being marked by a strong master
searchlight. This made it possible for at least one night-hunter,
irrespective of the direction from which the attack was coming, to
spot the Mosquitoes before they flew across the city. (As the
single-engined fighter’s speed advantage over the Mosquito was only
60 kph there was only a short time available for hunting so a greater
speed was required to catch the Mosquitoes and this was obtained by
making a steep dive from the waiting position). Of course this method
depended on good weather and visibility so that the searchlights
could pick up the plane at high altitude. Up to 25,000ft the flak had
a fire-free zone but the area above this limit was reserved for the
hunters. The Mosquitoes usually entered Berlin at around 20,000ft and
the problem now was that the hunters had to avoid their own flak. I
often experienced shells exploding near me, disturbing me while
hunting.<br />
<br />
On 8 July Krause took off at 00.40 hours in ‘Weisse Elf’
(‘White 11’) a FuG 217 J2 (Neptun) equipped Fw 190A-5 and
destroyed a Mosquito near Brandenburg, his only victory in this unit.
Kruase describes his victory:<br />
<br />
<i>I was flying over Berlin at a height of 8,500 metres when I saw
a twin-engined plane flying west caught in the searchlights. I closed
in until I was 700 metres above, gave full throttle and dived. I went
in too low and opened fire from approximately 200 metres from below
and behind and kept firing as I closed. My first shots hit the right
motor and an explosion followed. There was a burst of sparks and then
a thick white trail of vapour. As I had overshot I had to stop the
attack momentarily and found myself on the right, alongside the enemy
aircraft, whose cockade and external fuel tanks I saw clearly and so
was able to identify it without a doubt as a Mosquito. I fired ESN to
draw the attention of the flak and the searchlight to my presence.
The enemy ‘corkscrewed’ in an attempt to evade. Because of the
thick ‘white flag’ of vapour I was able to follow him, although
he had already left the searchlight zone in a north-westerly
direction. Following the trail, I managed to attack twice more. At
the third attack I noticed a further explosion on the right wing and
an even stronger rain of sparks. At 2,000 metres he disappeared,
turning at a flat gliding-angle under me. I did not see the impact on
the ground as this was hidden from my angle of view. On my return
flight, passing Lake Koppeln I could estimate the crash-point as
60-70 kilometres north-west of Berlin. When I returned to base a
report had already reached them about the crash of a burning enemy
aircraft west of Kürytz. My own plane was covered in oil from the
damaged Mosquito.</i><br />
<br />
On 18/19 July when twenty-two Mosquitoes were despatched to
Berlin, 29 year old Squadron Leader Terry ‘Doddy’ Dodwell RAFVR
DFC* and Pilot Officer George Cash, a 571 Squadron Mosquito team who
had been on ops for nearly a year, were lost. They are believed to
have been intercepted and shot down by Hauptmann Heinz Strüning of
3/NJG1, flying in a modified He 219 Uhu night fighter. Dodwell was
killed and Cash survived to be taken prisoner. Two nights later, on
20/21 July, during a LNSF raid on Hamburg by twenty-six Mosquitoes,
Strüning shot down another 571 Squadron B.XVI crewed by Flight
Lieutenants Thompson and Jack Calder RCAF. Thompson baled out but
Calder was killed.<br />
<br />
During the first week of August a series of heavy daylight bombing
raids were made on V-1 flying bomb sites in the Pas de Calais and
storage dumps at Bois de Cassan, Forêt de Nieppe and
Trossy-St-Maxim. For photographic and marking purposes a lone
Mosquito of 627 Squadron accompanied 5 Group’s Lancasters. Flying
Officer John Whitehead of 627 Squadron flew one of these photo
sorties on 3 August. Whitehead recalls:<br />
<br />
<i>It was a wonderful sunny August day, marked forever in my mind:
Woodhall Spa; flirting with girls around a swimming pool. But it was
time to dress, to get into our Mossie and take off for France. I had
a photographer aboard in place of my usual navigator, Johnny Watt.
The idea was to cross one of our bomber streams that was on the way
to bomb a V1 dump, cross it diagonally, to get some of their fighter
protection, then to descend steeply and mark a V-1 dump for the
heavies. We were late off the ground and the poster that was
displayed at all RAF stations during the war years: ‘The Straggler
is Lost!’ came to mind and worried us. We crossed at the rear end
of the 5 Group Lancaster stream, being turned nearly upside down a
couple of times by the slipstream of one of them. Hundreds of them
were silhouetted against the true blue sky, glistening here and there
in that extraordinary day’s sunlight. A stream of Messerschmitts
appeared high up, not interested in us Mossies and some Spitfires
streaked after them. We had two 500lb bombs aboard in addition to the
markers and they also had to be delivered, in a second dive onto the
same target. But the area had become somewhat of a wasps’ nest. It
seemed everybody was shooting down on us from the surrounding hills
while we were, by now, hugging the ground at 300 knots awaiting a
quiet stretch before I would dare to pull up sharply at full bore to
gain height and get away. And there, an apparition, a scene, a
happening! We whizzed by a tea party in the garden of a Chateau! I
believe that I recognised the pattern of Sevre china and saw clearly
the butler holding a silver tray. He was looking up frowning with
disapproval. I am not quite sure whether the surprised people
actually waved, but they certainly looked up. That’s the least they
could do, to express their support for my war effort? I was stunned
for a moment by this dissonance of war and peace, those three seconds
of it. Then we tried to get up to height, twisting and turning while
the flak still followed us. Once it had thinned out we flew home
happily to Woodhall Spa, hardly even looking back to France,
confident and relaxed. Who would try to go after a lone Mosquito
going home? The sun was still up, the sky still cloudless, when I
returned to the swimming pool to continue my flirt with the girls.
The number had shrunk to only one by now and she was somewhat
sunburned. But she was there!</i><br />
<br />
In August 692 Squadron at Graveley had a run of bad luck. On the
25th Squadron Leader W.D.W. Bird and Sergeant F.W. Hudson were killed
when they crashed at Park Farm, Old Warden near Bedford. It was
believed that the pilot misread his altimeter. On 27 August on a trip
to Mannheim Flight Lieutenant T.H. Galloway DFM and Sergeant J.
Murrell swung on take-off, caught fire and blew up. The ‘Cookie’
went off, but was not detonated, so it did not cause too much damage.
Galloway and Murray got out when the Mosquito caught fire and ran to
safety. Over the target Flying Officer S.G.A. Warner and Flying
Officer W.K. McGregor RCAF were shot down and killed and the
searchlights and flak followed them all the way down. On 10/11
September it was the old Milk Run again to Berlin. Terry Goodwin DFC
DFM a 692 Squadron pilot at Graveley flew this operation, his last on
the Mosquito and he had a rather anxious time, as he recounts:<br />
<br />
<i>After Hugh Hay had finished his tour I had several good
navigators with nothing to worry about. However, when my last trip
was coming up there was a new navigator posted in. He was a Warrant
Officer with no trips in at all. I just could not figure that out
when all crews at that time had a tour under their belts and knew
what the score was. I took him for a cross-country, which was not
satisfactory as he had trouble with the Gee. I did not know whether
it was a ‘short’ or a ‘long’ trip: either the Ruhr or Berlin.
It turned out to be the ‘big city’.</i><br />
<br />
<i>The night was clear. The take-off with the 4,000lb ‘Cookie’
was good. The aircraft was singing right along with all gauges OK.
The track was out over the North Sea towards Denmark then a sharp
turn right south-east to a point just west of Berlin then straight
east for the bombing run. When we were approaching this turning point
it was clear with no moon. I could see the coast outline right from
Denmark south. The tram trolleys of Hamburg were still making their
blue sparks and then shut down fully. Then the sprog navigator said
to me, “I don’t know where we are!” I told him to get the
course from the turning point and I would tell him when to start all
over again. He did and got us just west of Berlin on time or at least
I thought we were on time. I told him to log the time, then go and
dump the Window down the chute. There was no action outside as we ran
up looking for the ‘TIs’. Jerry was playing it very careful
giving nothing away. Where was that PFF type? The TIs should be going
down! Then all hell broke loose. Every searchlight in the city came
on right on us and the flak was too damn close. I turned sharp right
and dived 2,000ft, straightened out back on course, held it, turned
left and climbed and got more flak but further away. And this kept on
and on. Finally the lights were bending east so I thought we should
be through the city. I turned back west and still no PFF. I told the
navigator to drop the ‘Cookie’ (I don’t think we got a proper
picture) because the flak was hard at us again. Then the TIs went
down right ahead of us so we were pretty close. But the flak kept on
and I twisted and dived and climbed and kept that up. I knew we were
down to about 17,000ft when I suddenly saw the light flak opening up.
You knew it was pretty if it was not so damn serious. I turned and
climbed out on the west side of Berlin. I told the navigator to log
the time. We had been in it for 11 minutes with Jerry’s undivided
attention. Were there any fighters? Not that I saw, maybe I was just
too busy. It would not have been a safe place for them with all that
flak around. We did get home and logged 4 hours and 30 minutes. The
next morning the Flight Sergeant found me and then showed me the
aircraft. It was full of flak; the main spar of the tail plane was
getting an 18-inch splice. He dug a piece of flak out for me. One
piece had just nicked the intercooler rad, then the fairing for the
main rad. but not the tubes, but was spent as it bounced around the
engine.</i><br />
<br />
Berlin at this time was the ‘favourite’ destination for the
Mosquitoes. ‘A’ and ‘B’ Flights at 8 (PFF) Group stations
were routed to the Big City over towns and cities whose air raid
sirens would announce their arrival overhead, although they were not
the targets for the Mosquitoes’ bombs. Depriving the Germans of
much needed sleep and comfort was a very effective nuisance weapon,
while a 4,000pounder nestling in the bomb bay was a more tangible
‘calling card’. The ‘night postmen’ had two rounds: After
take-off crews immediately climbed to height, departed Cromer and
flew the dog-leg route Heligoland-Bremen-Hamburg. The second route
saw departure over Woodbridge and went to The Ruhr-Hannover-Munich.
Two Mosquito bombers, which failed to return from the attack on
Berlin on 13/14 September, were claimed shot down south-east of the
capital by Oberfeldwebel Egbert Jaacks of I./NJG10 and at
Braunschweig by Leutnant Karl Mitterdorfer of 10./JG300.<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-34084260014288003282016-08-05T14:10:00.002+08:002016-08-05T14:10:54.473+08:00Target Berlin – The Forgotten Soviet Bomber Raids on Hitler’s Capital<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2015/09/21/target-berlin-the-forgotten-soviet-bomber-raids-on-hitlers-capital/">Target Berlin - The Forgotten Soviet Bomber Raids on Hitler's Capital</a></h4>
ALMOST FROM THE start of the Second World War, Berlin was in the crosshairs of Allied bombers. Beginning with the first British raid on the Nazi capital, launched on Aug. 25, 1940, through to the last attacks before VE Day, RAF Bomber Command dropped an estimated 45,000 tons of ordnance on the city.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-60503038721647483852016-08-05T14:08:00.003+08:002016-08-05T14:08:38.641+08:00Far East Flying Fortresses — How the B-17 Made a Splash in the Pacific<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://militaryhistorynow.com/2016/03/14/far-east-flying-fortresses-how-the-b-17-made-a-splash-in-the-pacific/">Far East Flying Fortresses - How the B-17 Made a Splash in the Pacific</a></h4>
MOST KNOW ABOUT the swarms of B-17s the U.S. Army Air Force flew against the Third Reich in World War Two. But Flying Fortresses also fought in the Pacific in the opening years of the war, albeit in limited numbers.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-53460355006199027282016-03-10T20:32:00.003+08:002016-03-10T20:32:50.058+08:00GUY GIBSON: LEGEND OF THE DAM BUSTERS<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjINvIY7Vq1mxNRRzLLGhOwbDuTG8jp7ZkDfi9zNj4cwk_Yxt_kmn9wNMkWC4wssVUFkvW287LXJDquUE5a8Le58zoSI8PXnDMn1iQOKAGlv9894mqLkk5VxiMItYpKjs9tGSN4DOc_UyA/s1600/operation-chastise-first-wave-black-and-white-version-gary-eason.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjINvIY7Vq1mxNRRzLLGhOwbDuTG8jp7ZkDfi9zNj4cwk_Yxt_kmn9wNMkWC4wssVUFkvW287LXJDquUE5a8Le58zoSI8PXnDMn1iQOKAGlv9894mqLkk5VxiMItYpKjs9tGSN4DOc_UyA/s400/operation-chastise-first-wave-black-and-white-version-gary-eason.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<em><strong>The Möhne dam the day following the attacks.</strong></em></div>
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<em><strong> </strong></em><em><strong>Wing Commander Guy Gibson on parade during the King’s visit of May 27, 1943.</strong></em></div>
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<strong>The Bouncing Bomb</strong><br />
Operation Chastise, the Dambuster raid against the Möhne, Eder, Sorpe
and Ennepe Dams in Germany’s Ruhr industrial region, was only made
possible by the ground-breaking work of the aviation designer, Dr Barnes
Wallis.<br />
<br />
Barnes Neville Wallis was born on 26 September 1887 in Ripley,
Derbyshire, and was educated at the prestigious Christ’s Hospital
boarding school in Horsham, West Sussex. He rose to prominence with his
pioneering geodetic basket-weave method of airframe construction, which
was adopted for the R100 airship in 1930 while he was working for
Vickers-Armstrongs’ Airship Guarantee Company in Hull. Pierson
recognised Wallis’ obvious talents and encouraged him to move into
aircraft design. Wallis subsequently worked closely with Pierson on the
development of the Vickers Wellesley and Vickers Wellington bombers,
both of which used his geodetic design for the construction of their
wings and fuselage.<br />
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It
was while Wallis was working alongside Pierson that Vickers allowed him
sufficient freedom to explore other ideas and he was able to work on
the development of his bouncing bomb. In April 1942 Wallis wrote his now
infamous paper Spherical Bomb – Surface Torpedo, in which he first put
forward his idea for a bomb that could attack shipping by bouncing
across the surface of water.<br />
<br />
Initially, his idea was that the bomb
should be used to attack German capital ships, including the Tirpitz,
which was hidden away deep inside a Norwegian fjord. His intention was
that the bomb would bounce across the water of the fjord and so avoid
the torpedo nets that protected her, nets that made a conventional
attack almost impossible. Not surprisingly therefore, it was the Royal
Navy that first championed the proposal and encouraged Wallis to pursue
it further. It was the support from the Admiralty that led to a series
of trials at Chesil Beach in Dorset in January 1943, tests which
eventually proved the bomb’s viability. It is widely regarded that
without the Admiralty’s support the bouncing bomb may not have got off
the drawing board.<br />
<br />
It was at this time that a flurry of political wrangling took place
behind the scenes of the Air Staff which threatened to put an end to the
bouncing bomb. Air Vice-Marshal Francis Linnell at the Ministry of
Aircraft Production was known to be sceptical about the bomb and was
concerned that the time Wallis was spending on developing it would
distract him from vital work needed to get the Vickers Windsor
heavy-bomber into production. On 12 February 1943 Wallis learnt that
Linnell was planning to request that the bouncing bomb project be
cancelled. Determined to see it through Wallis wrote to a friend at the
Air Ministry, Group Captain Fred Winterbottom, to see what could be done
to save the bomb. His seemingly desperate letter included the phrase
“help, oh help” written across the bottom.<br />
<br />
Winterbottom wrote to Air Vice-Marshal Francis Inglis, a senior
officer on the Air Staff and suggested, falsely, that the Prime Minister
was interested in the bomb, that the Royal Navy were likely to move the
development of the bomb forward without the Royal Air Force and implied
that the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Portal had not been
fully briefed on the situation.<br />
Learning of Winterbottom’s letter, Air Vice-Marshal Linnell wrote to
Arthur Harris, Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of RAF Bomber Command and
warned him that a number of his precious Lancaster bombers may be
requisitioned for the bouncing bomb. Furious at the potential loss of
the aircraft Harris wrote a stern letter to Air Chief Marshal Portal on
18 February 1943, which suggested that he thought the weapon only
existed in the imagination of those who had proposed it and that
“Highball is just about the maddest proposition as any that have yet
come across – and that is saying something.”<br />
<br />
Linnell then contacted Charles Craven, the chairman of Vickers and
warned him that Wallis’ actions in pressing for the bouncing bomb were
putting his company’s commercial interests at risk. Wallis was put under
pressure by Craven to drop the project, but, as was typical of his
stubborn nature, he chose instead to resign from Vickers.<br />
<br />
Winterbottom’s letter to Inglis, however, had remarkably managed to
turn the situation around. On 19 February 1943, the day after Harris had
written his letter, Inglis had ensured that Portal had been fully
briefed and that he was shown the footage of the trials at Chesil Beach.
As a result of this briefing Portal wrote to Harris saying: “As you
know I have the greatest respect for your opinion on all technical and
operational matters and I agree with you that it is quite possible that
the Highball and Upkeep projects may come to nothing. Nevertheless I do
not feel inclined to refuse Air Staff interest in these weapons since I
think the whole conception is far simpler than that of the Johnny Walker
or the Toraplane, and we know that the full size mock-up of Highball
does what is claimed for it (unless the cinema lies!)” Portal then
ordered an astonished Linnell to approve the bouncing bomb project.<br />
<br />
On 26 February 1943 Linnell briefed Wallis on the proposal to attack
on the dams and stated that the raid would have to take place by the
full-moon in May of that year. This gave Wallis just two months to
complete his development, during which time Bomber Command was required
to establish and train a special squadron to undertake the mission. The
new 617 Squadron was established in record time and was based at RAF
Scampton in Lincolnshire, with Wing Commander Guy Gibson appointed as
its commander. It has been suggested that Gibson handpicked the squadron
from the ranks of former colleagues, choosing the most experienced
crews. In fact Gibson had only previously known four of the pilots who
joined the squadron. As for them being the most experienced, rear gunner
Canadian Grant MacDonald had flown just four missions before he joined
the squadron.<br />
<br />
<strong>The Raid</strong><br />
On the night of 16 May 1943 nineteen Lancaster Mk III bombers from
617 Squadron, armed with Upkeep bouncing bombs, took-off from RAF
Scampton to attack the Möhne, Eder, Sorpe and Ennepe Dams in Germany’s
Ruhr and Eder valleys. To compensate for the size and weight of the
bomb, each aircraft was specially modified, which included removing most
of the internal armour and the bomb-bay doors.<br />
<br />
The aircraft were divided into three formations. The first consisted
of nine aircraft and was assigned to the Möhne Dam, with orders to then
attack the Eder Dam if they had any bombs remaining. The second
formation consisted of a further five aircraft and was set the task of
attacking the Sorpe Dam. The third formation was made up of another five
aircraft and was intended as a reserve force that took-off two hours
after the first two formations had departed. The second formation was
the first to take-off and left RAF Scampton at 9.28pm on 16 May. They
took a longer northern route to the dams, whilst the first formation,
which took off from 9.39pm in groups of three at ten minute intervals,
was assigned the shorter southern route. The third formation began to
take-off early the following morning at 0.09am.<br />
<br />
Gibson led the first formation and was the first to attack the Möhne
Dam. Flight Lieutenant John Hopgood made the second run, but was hit by
flak as he approached the dam and was then caught by the blast of his
own bomb. Gibson flew across his flight-path in an attempt to draw away
the enemy’s fire, but Hopgood crashed shortly after. Two of Hopgood’s
crew managed to survive. Flight Lieutenant Harold Martin then made the
next run and successfully attacked the dam, followed by Squadron Leader
Henry Young and Flight Lieutenant David Maltby. The dam was eventually
breached and Gibson led the remainder of the first formation on to the
Eder Dam, with Lancasters piloted by Squadron Leader Henry Young, Flight
Lieutenant Dave Shannon, Squadron Leader Henry Maudslay and Flying
Officer Les Knight.<br />
<br />
Once over the Eder Valley the Lancasters encountered thick fog, which
made lining up the next attack more difficult. Shannon made six runs at
the target before he stepped aside and let Maudslay make an attempt.
Maudslay dropped his bomb in the attack, but it clipped the top of the
dam and the explosion damaged his aircraft. Shannon then made his next
attempt, which successfully exploded behind the dam. Knight then made
his next run and successfully exploded his bomb against the dam, which
finally was sufficient to cause a breach.<br />
<br />
Flight Lieutenant Joe McCarthy from the second formation, with Flight
Sergeant Ken Brown and Flight Sergeant Cyril Anderson from the third
formation, reached the Sorpe Dam. Unlike the other dams, which were made
of concrete, the Sorpe was of earthen construction and was expected to
be much harder to breach. For these attacks the Lancasters were to
approach along the length of the dam, rather than at right angles, and
the Upkeep bomb was not spun in the aircraft before it was dropped.<br />
<br />
McCarthy made ten attempts at his run before he dropped his bomb. He
managed a direct hit but caused very little damage. Brown made his
attack, but also failed to damage the dam. Anderson abandoned his run
due to the dense fog. The remaining Lancasters were then ordered on to
other targets before turning for home. Pilot Officer Warner Ottley was
shot down before he could reach the Lister Dam and although Flight
Sergeant Bill Townsend managed to launch an attack on the Ennepe Dam his
bomb did not cause any damage.<br />
<br />
The surviving aircraft started arrive back at RAF Scampton from
3.11am. Gibson returned at 4.15am and Townsend was the last to return
home, reaching the air base at 6.15am.<br />
<br />
Of the nineteen Lancasters that left that night, eight did not make
it back. The aircraft were required to fly at a perilous height of
one-hundred feet for most of the journey in order to avoid enemy radar
detection. As a result two of the Lancasters collided with power cables
and were lost before reaching their targets, two aircraft were shot down
over the Netherlands before they could reach their target and a third
was shot down over Germany before it reached the dams. After the attack
two Lancasters were shot down over Germany and one was shot down over
the Netherlands. Fifty-three of the one-hundred and thirty-three aircrew
who had left the previous evening were killed on the raid, of which
thirteen were Canadian and two were Australian. There were three
survivors taken prisoner-of-war, two were from Hopgood’s aircraft and
the third was from Ottley’s.<br />
<br />
A total of thirty-four air crew were recognised for their
contribution to the raid and received decorations at a ceremony held at
Buckingham Palace on 22 June 1943. Gibson was awarded the Victoria
Cross. In addition, five airmen received Distinguished Service Orders,
ten Distinguished Flying Crosses and four bars, two Conspicuous
Gallantry Medals and eleven Distinguished Flying Medals and one bar.<br />
<br />
Wallis was shocked by the loss of life amongst the aircrew of 617
Squadron, who he had got to know during the weeks prior to the raid.
When the Royal Commission awarded him £10,000 for his work during the
war he donated it to his old school, Christ’s Hospital, to establish the
RAF Foundationers’ Trust that could pay for children of airmen killed
or injured in action to study at the school.<br />
<br />
Wallis and his wife Molly had four children and their daughter Mary
married Harry Stopes-Roe, the son of the women’s rights campaigner Marie
Stopes and Humphrey Verdon-Roe, co-founder of AV Roe and Company
Limited, the aircraft manufacturer that designed and built the Lancaster
bomber.<br />
A special memorial to those who took part in Operation Chastise was
erected at Woodhall Spa, near to RAF Scampton. In 2008 a statue of
Barnes Wallis was erected near Reculver in Herne Bay, Kent, where the
Upkeep bomb was tested.<br />
<br />
A memorial was erected in Neheim, four miles from the Möhne Dam, in
memory of the German dead. Figures have since suggested that in Germany
the raid cost the lives of 1,294 people, of which 749 were believed to
have been French, Belgian, Dutch and Ukrainian prisoners of war and
labourers.<br />
<br />
Examples of various bouncing bomb prototypes can be found at museums
around the UK, including the Aeronautical Museum at Brenzett, Romney
Marsh, the Brooklands Museum in Weybridge, Dover Castle in Kent, the
Imperial War Museum at Duxford in Cambridgeshire and the Spitfire and
Hurricane Memorial Museum at RAF Manston in Kent.<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-55004158334755226842016-03-10T20:27:00.001+08:002016-03-10T20:28:09.772+08:00RAF 1936 Bomber Specifications<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
A feature of the 1936 bomber specifications that had unlooked for
beneficial repercussions was the requirement that the medium bomber P.
13/36 should be capable of modification to carry torpedoes. When tenders
to specification P. 13/36 were received, it was found that provision to
carry two 18 in. torpedoes (which were 18 ft long) without altering the
main structure of the aircraft, or losing performance, was causing
design difficulties. This led the DDOR (Oxland) to review the discussion
on this issue that had taken place at the two Operational Requirements
Committee meetings on P.13/36. He told the DCAS (Peirse) that the
Coastal Command representative had given his C-in-C’s view that the
aircraft was too large and expensive for a torpedo bomber. Even so, the
then DCAS (Courtney) had argued that whilst there was the possibility of
a limitation on the numbers of first-line aircraft, it was desirable
that every unit should be as effective in war as possible. As we have
seen, a muted form of the torpedo-carrying requirement was therefore
included in the requirements.<br />
<br />
Oxland recommended that as a dedicated torpedo bomber was now under
development (B.10/36 — Bristol Beaufort) the torpedo requirement should
be deleted from P.13/36. Alternatively, he said, provision could be made
for a limited number of the aircraft to have larger bomb doors and so
on.<br />
The Operations and Plans branches of the Air Staff did not agree with
deletion of the torpedo requirement. They advised Peirse that the
Admiralty had yet to be persuaded that, ‘the “B” bomb is in every way a
more efficient weapon with which to attack ships’, and that a torpedo
bomber version of P. 13/36 should be developed until the Admiralty was
convinced otherwise. (The ‘B’ bomb was designed to be dropped in the
path of a ship, sink, and then rise to strike the bottom of the ship as
it passed over.)<br />
<br />
This discussion was made redundant when the Operational Requirements
branch announced that it had new information on the size of torpedoes.
It now found that the Avro P. 13/36 could carry only one internally, and
that in any case existing torpedoes could not be released at 150 mph
from 200 ft. If this was relevant, the DCAS (Peirse) must have wondered
how the idea of torpedo carrying for P.13/36 had arisen in the first
place. It appears that the Operational Requirements branch had given no
more thought to the operational problems of torpedo dropping than they
were later found to have given to catapult launching. Peirse decided
that torpedo carrying would no longer be asked of the P.13/36 bombers.
Nevertheless, the long bomb bay that had been required was to prove
valuable when bombs larger than the 2,000 lb were found to be needed.<br />
<br />
A common misconception regarding RAF bomber specifications is that
they always sought to combine bomber and troop transport requirements,
and it is suggested that this applied to the 1936 bomber specifications.
We have seen that the requirement that a heavy bomber should be
designed so as to carry troops was indeed included in the first draft
specification for the B.3/34 (Whitley). The Air Staff had been led to
believe that this additional role could be obtained without a reduction
in its performance as a bomber. It was dropped from the specification
after discussions with industry, and after the DTD admitted it would
result in a loss of 10 mph in speed.<br />
<br />
The 1936 bomber specifications (B.12/36 and P.13/36) stated:<br />
<i>Consideration is to be given in design for fitting a light
removable form of seating for the maximum number of personnel that can
be accommodated within the fuselage when the aircraft is being used for
reinforcing Overseas Commands.</i><br />
<br />
This was certainly not demanding provision for troop carrying.
Seating was to be fitted in the fuselage, not that the fuselage was to
be designed to take seating. Moreover, it referred to the need to
transport RAF ground crew to RAF Overseas Commands — a concomitant of
the introduction of a reinforcement range into bomber requirements.
Significantly, only after the 1936 bomber specifications had been issued
did the Air Staff investigate using them as transports, and proposed a
provisional allocation of funds for a new transport in case this was not
possible. But when this proposition was discussed it was decided that
one of the bombers ‘must’ be used as a transport. In a later lecture to
the Higher Commanders’ Course the point was made that these bombers
‘will have all the necessary cabin space, lift capacity and range to
fulfil the bomber transport primary role and its secondary functions as
well’. Nevertheless, the lecturer noted that ‘by reason of the
multiplicity of internal installations in the fuselage the troops may
not enjoy the same degree of comfort available in present types’.
Indeed, when Bomber Command officers inspected the mock-up of the
Supermarine design to B.12/36, far from finding accommodation for fully
armed troops, they were concerned as to whether there was adequate room
for the crew. They reported that headroom throughout the fuselage was
restricted, and that even the captain and navigator did not have room to
stand. Clearly a troop carrying requirement did not dominate — or even
influence — the design of RAF bombers.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of the future development of the aircraft designed to
the 1936 bomber specifications was of great significance. We have seen
that when Sir Edward Ellington saw the Air Staff Requirement for the new
heavy bomber B.12/36, he asked for 20mm cannon armament to be
considered. The Air Staff advised that this was neither possible nor
necessary. Their reasoning was unsound, and the policy was soon
reversed, but it was then too late to modify any of the designs to the
1936 bomber specifications, although attempts were made.<br />
<br />
When the cannon fighter (F.37/35) was devised, the replacement of
eight 0.303 in. machine guns by half that number of 20mm cannon was
regarded as a major increase in armament. Yet, in response to
Ellington’s request for consideration of cannon armament for bombers,
Oxland examined only the replacement of machine guns by the same number
of 20mm cannon. From this premise he argued that for a four-gun tail
turret, the extra weight of cannon so far aft of the centre of gravity
was unacceptable — hardly an insurmountable obstacle for aircraft which
were yet to be designed. He added that recoil loads would give grave
problems except for firing almost directly astern. For a two-gun
midships turret, Oxland claimed that whilst the weight would be half
that of the tail turret, the weight of the ammunition needed for an
aircraft which would spend long periods over hostile territory was
unacceptable. We will see that this self-contradictory argument was
replaced in 1938 by recognition that it was worth exchanging half the
bomb load for ammunition if that made it more likely that the remainder
would get through. For the nose turret, Oxland said that cannon would
obstruct the bomb aimer, and would be too heavy if beam fire was wanted.
He then claimed that these difficulties could be avoided because a
bomber did not need the extra range of a big gun.<br />
<br />
This argument had appeared in the Operation Requirements branch’s
review of fighter and bomber armament that we noted in our discussion of
fighter firepower. It reasoned that when attacked from astern the
effective range of a bomber’s firing was considerably shortened as
compared with that of the attacking fighter. If we think of a fighter
flying directly astern of a bomber, and at the same speed, then from the
moment a projectile leaves the bomber the fighter is flying towards it,
thus closing the effective range. Conversely, the range of the
fighter’s firing opens, because the bomber is moving away from it. This
theory was irrelevant to defence against beam or frontal attacks, and
therefore to midships and nose turrets. Nevertheless, Oxland claimed
that it largely disposed of one of the two supposed advantages of 20mm
guns. As regards the other advantage of cannon — an explosive shell — he
said that the stage had not been reached ‘where this can be utilised
effectively without severe disadvantages’. There had been no mention of
such difficulties when he and Sorley had advocated cannon armament for
RAF fighters in the previous year — they then claimed that one hit from a
20mm round could be decisive.<br />
<br />
Little more than a year after Oxland had argued against 20mm cannon
armament for the B.12/36 he was advising Plans branch of the Air Staff
that bombers of the immediate future would need to be armed with 20mm
guns, and later with 37—40 mm guns.96 This was confirmed in a review of
bomber armament in June 1938.<br />
<br />
Plans were made to fit 20mm cannon to Mark II versions of the
Stirling, Halifax and Manchester, but by then the centre of gravity
issue was decisive because it had not been designed for in 1936.
Experiments with twin 20mm cannon upper and lower midships turret for
the Stirling and Halifax found that it was difficult to balance the
aircraft even with the tail turret omitted entirely. W.S. Farren (then
DD/RDA) explained to the Air Fighting Committee in 1940 that
nevertheless this was the only way of having 20mm guns on existing
bombers. He said that to have cannon in a tail turret, ‘they would have
to start again from the beginning’.<br />
<br />
The outcome of the 1936 bomber specifications was remarkable. On the
one hand, the prospect of catapult take-off led to a requirement for a
relatively small heavy bomber to carry a very large bomb load or have a
longer range than that sought in earlier specifications. On the other
hand, the desire for a multi-role high-speed medium bomber with a
maximum range of 3,000 miles led to a relatively large aircraft of this
type. Misleading interpretations of the Air Staff’s intentions in 1936
most likely arise from a retrospective view of the development of the
aircraft designed to meet these requirements. It transpired that the
aircraft designed to the medium bomber specification (P.13/36) embodied
the potential for development into more successful heavy bombers
(Halifax and Manchester/Lancaster) than that designed to the heavy
bomber specification, B.12/36 (Stirling). That this was possible can be
traced to three technical features of the medium bomber specification —
gross overloading with catapult take-off, fuel tankage for a range of
3,000 miles, and provision for the internal stowage of torpedoes.<br />
<br />
Initial designs to specification P.13/36 needed to be stressed for
catapulting at maximum overload, and to have internal stowage for the
overload bomb and fuel load. In addition, provision had to be made for
an unobstructed bomb bay if some of the aircraft were to be modified to
serve as torpedo bombers. These additions to the normal requirements
gave scope for the future development of the aircraft which followed
from the specification after both torpedo carrying and catapult take-off
had been abandoned. There was space for much larger bombs than were
envisaged in 1936, and the potential for operation with large bomb loads
using a longer conventional take-off run.<br />
<br />
The first step towards the transformation of the intended medium to a
heavy bomber came from Handley Page. Soon after commencing design to P.
13/36 the company concluded that the aircraft would be very similar to
their on-going design to B.1/35 — the ‘Americanised’ B.3/34 heavy bomber
specification. They asked the Air Ministry if they could stop work on
their contract for B.1/35 and absorb it into their P.13/36 design. This
was agreed.<br />
<br />
Both the Handley Page and Avro P.13/36 bombers were initially
designed to be powered by two Vulture engines as anticipated by Verney.
But on Air Ministry instructions the Handley Page design was soon
changed to four Merlins, and was thought to meet the P.13/36 maximum
overload requirement without assisted take-off, albeit with a long
conventional take-off. Avro continued with the Vulture engine, but this
proved a failure, and the P.13/36 Manchester was modified to the
Lancaster, also with four Merlins. Thus the Air Ministry’s misplaced
faith in the catapult scheme finished back where Liptrot’s first
estimates for a new heavy bomber had started — with bombers powered by
four Merlins — albeit derived from requirements for a medium bomber.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-25921053218986369182015-08-10T15:20:00.001+08:002015-08-10T15:20:14.458+08:00BERLIN: THE CITY TARGET <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>The Zoo Flak Tower</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b> </b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><i>Target indicators falling over Berlin during a raid on the city</i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><i>Berlin city strike photo </i></b></div>
<br />
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<div class="MsoNormal">
The 'Battles' of Bomber Command were not fought out between
two sets of formed adversaries as in conventional combat. It is true that the
Luftwaffe tried to engage the bombers and wear down their strength, but more
than nine out of every ten bombers usually reached the target area unscathed,
and it was here that the true battle was fought, between the tonnage of bombs
dropped and the target city itself. The true German 'side' in the Battle of
Berlin were the city's air-raid organization and civil administration, the
resilience of its public services and of its industrial and commercial firms
and, above all, the spirit and will-power of the civilian population. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Berlin as it stood awaiting the bombers in August 1943. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It was huge, being not only the capital and largest city in
Germany, but the third largest city in the world, with an area covering nearly
900 square miles and a pre-war population of more than four million of the
tough stock of local inhabitants. Now, in 1943, it was the administrative
centre not only of Germany but of the new empire that had been carved out of
Europe by conquest. Those massive government departments alone would have been
a sufficient attraction for the R. A. F. interest, but Berlin's war factories
and its rail and canal communications, standing halfway between the Western and
Eastern Fronts, made it both a major arsenal and the hub of Germany's interior
lines of communication. The 'big five' in war industry terms were the Alkett
factory at Spandau, which produced large numbers of self-propelled guns and
half of the Wehrmacht's field artillery; the Borsigwerke, making locomotives,
rolling stock and heavy artillery; the D. W. M. and D. I. W. combines, both
producing large quantities of small arms, mortars and ammunition; and Siemens,
the huge electrical firm not only located in its self-contained 'Siemensstadt',
a huge area packed with various factories, but with other plants all over
Berlin. A selection of some of the other well-known names of firms with
premises in Berlin confirms the obvious importance of the city to Germany's war
effort: at least ten A. E. G. factories, the Arguswerke where V-i engines were built,
a B. M. W. and two Daimler-Benz motor factories, two Henschel and one Dornier
aircraft factories, a Mauser weapons factory, three Rheinmetall and three
Telefunken factories, V. K. F. ball-bearings, Zeiss cameras. Most of this had
been hardly touched by the war so far. When Britain rearmed in the mid-1930s a
bomber force was planned with the range to reach Berlin. But the first attack
was delayed for nearly a year, initially by the general bombing restraint which
held until the German offensive in the West in May 1940, and then by the R. A.
F.'s preoccupation with the Battle of France and the home invasion threat. The
first raid was carried out by about fifty Wellingtons and Hampdens on the night
of 25/26 August 1940, in retaliation for a raid on London the previous night.
It was a disappointing raid. Strong head winds, thick cloud and the navigation
problems which were to hamper the bomber crews for much of the war resulted in
only a handful of aircraft reaching the Berlin area to drop a few bombs in the
countryside south of the city. But Bomber Command persisted for more than a
year. The records for that period do not make it clear exactly how many sorties
were dispatched to Berlin, but possibly a thousand aircraft attempted to bomb
the city between August 1940 and November 1941. At least sixty-two bombers were
lost in these operations. The climax came on the night of 7/8 November 1941,
when 169 aircraft were dispatched to Berlin, despite a poor weather forecast.
Twenty-one of these did not return. It was the culmination of a disappointing
period and the Commander-in-Chief of Bomber Command, Air Marshal Sir Richard
Peirse, departed. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When Sir Arthur Harris took over early in 1942, he ignored
Berlin for the whole of that year, preferring to build up the strength of his
force carefully and to experiment with new tactics against easier targets.
Then, in early 1943, came a series of five raids, with 1,415 four-engined
aircraft sorties being sent to Berlin. These raids produced moderate results;
various residential areas were damaged and about 650 Berliners were killed. By
no more than chance, all of these raids hit only the southern districts of
Berlin; the administrative centre and the industrial areas which were mainly in
the north were hardly touched. Now, in August 1943, after the shorter nights of
summer, Harris was ready to start with his main effort against the German
capital. The tonnage of bombs he would be able to deliver to Berlin in the
coming winter would be more than fifteen times greater than the tonnage dropped
in all of the preceding years of the war.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
German historians stress how the slow expansion of the
British bomber effort over the early years of the war enabled the German
authorities to develop both the armed defences of their cities and the local
air-raid services without ever being overwhelmed - at least, not until the
recent disaster at Hamburg. Berlin, with its gradual introduction to the
experience of being bombed and with the priorities afforded to a capital city,
was particularly well prepared to meet the coming test. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The preparations received an urgent boost from the
experiences of Hamburg three weeks earlier. Evacuation of children before then
had been a voluntary matter; the result had not been effective, and many of the
children sent away in the early days later returned. But after Hamburg,
Goebbels, who besides being Minister of Propaganda was also Gauleiter of
Berlin, ordered that all children and young mothers were to leave the city.
Entire schools, children and teachers together, went off to the east, out of
range of the British bombers. The school buildings thus emptied would become
valuable emergency hospitals and collecting centres for the people bombed out
of their homes in the coming raids. Because of the pressure on the railways,
this mass evacuation was not complete by the time the first R. A. F. raids
came, but it continued with even more urgency after the first series of raids
and would be complete before the Battle of Berlin was resumed in November. A
total of 790,000 women and children left, an exodus which saved many lives and
reduced the pressure on Berlin's services during the main battle. This was in
direct contrast to the recent Hamburg experience, when the children of that
city had figured prominently in the huge death toll. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Berlin was and still is a city of flats (apartments to
Americans), vast numbers of four-, five- or six-storeyed blocks filling street
after street, and it would be in these flats and in their basements and
courtyards that the outcome of the battle would be decided. The life of Hamburg
had been temporarily stopped because its housing had been destroyed by fire. In
those August days, the people of Berlin worked hard to learn the lessons of
Hamburg and make their homes as fireproof as possible. Each family in a block
had a partitioned section of the building's attic; now, all belongings had to
be removed from these, and the Todt Organisation then came and ripped down the
partitioned walls of the attics to enable incendiary bombs to be reached. Fresh
supplies were added to the sand and water which every family was obliged to
have in their flat and corridor. Berlin was particularly well equipped with
air-raid shelters. As in London, the underground railway stations- in Berlin
the U-Bahn - provided deep and safe shelter for thousands of people. But the
Berliners had an advantage over the people of London ; every block of flats had
a large basement area and these became sturdy air-raid shelters for the
families upstairs. No German city dweller of the war years will forget the
countless hours spent with their neighbours in those basement shelters. To
avoid being trapped in a shelter by rubble-blocked exits, holes were knocked
through the walls separating each basement. These holes were then re-covered, to
preserve the privacy of each shelter, but only with a thin layer of easily
removable bricks. In this way, the people in a threatened shelter could move
from one basement to another, the whole length of a street if necessary, to
find an unblocked exit. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Again, comparison can be made with both London and Hamburg.
Berlin was a more modern city, the streets of its residential districts were
wider, with more room for an incendiary-bomb attack to waste itself and less
chance of the rubble blocking the streets to fire-engines or of fire leaping
from one side of the street to the other. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There were more open spaces. There were no streets of the
flimsy terraced houses which had suffered so badly from high explosive bombs in
the London 'Blitz', and the Berlin blocks of flats were acknowledged to be of
sounder construction than those in Hamburg which had burnt so fiercely in the
Firestorm. Then there were the Flak and the searchlights - the armed defence of
the city. Berlin was known to all Bomber Command men as 'the Big City' because
of the extent of that defence. Flying Officer R. E. Luke, of 426 Squadron, was
a bomb aimer who had to fly over Berlin.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The murmur which swept through the briefing room when the
target map of Berlin was revealed paid tribute to the severity of the defences,
which, particularly on a cloudless night, struck fear into the hearts of those
crews ordered to attack it. It seemed to us that only the best German personnel
were posted to defend the city. An enormous cone of searchlights ringed the
city, which could be seen a long way off, and it did not seem possible to
breach them. In all our thirty-three operations we encountered no target more
heavily defended than Berlin. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Flight Lieutenant R. B. Leigh was another bomb aimer, in 156
Squadron. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lying in the nose of a
Lancaster on a visual bomb run over Berlin was probably the most frightening
experience of my lifetime. Approaching the target, the city appeared to be
surrounded by rings of searchlights, and the Flak was always intense. The
run-up seemed endless, the minutes of flying 'straight and level' seemed like
hours and every second I expected to be blown to pieces. I sweated with fear,
and the perspiration seemed to freeze on my body. </i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A Bomber Command map of the period shows that the Flak area
around Berlin measured forty miles across, and the searchlight belt around it
was sixty miles wide! Certainly no other target in Germany was better defended
than Berlin, though some Bomber Command men say that the Ruhr defences were of
comparable strength. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Some aspects of the Berlin defences are of particular
interest. The Flak defences had been installed early in the war, with an outer
and an inner ring of guns. When the R. A. F. started to use a 'bomber stream'
this system was no longer suitable, and the guns now operated under combined
control and simply filled various ordered sections of the sky with a box
barrage, although bombers which arrived early, stragglers or those caught in
searchlights could still be engaged by aimed fire. The main feature of the old
inner ring of guns was twenty-four massive 128-millimetre guns mounted in pairs
on three Flak towers built in parks in the Zoo, Friedrichshain and Humboldthain
districts. These guns had been developed by the local Borsigwerke factory. The
eight guns on each tower could fire a salvo every ninety seconds, to a maximum
ceiling of 45,000 feet (14,800 metres) and, when the eight shells exploded in
the planned pattern, they had a lethal zone of 260 yards (240 metres) across.
The gun platform crews on the towers were all trained German soldiers, unlike
most German Flak batteries which had many pressed Russian prisoners and German
schoolboys in their crews; the only Russians were down in the basement
ammunition chambers, loading the shell hoists. Many of the gunners on the
towers were from a Hamburg unit with much to avenge. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The construction of the towers themselves, by the Todt
Organisation on plans by Speer, had commenced as early as 1940. Hitler wished
to show the people of Berlin and of the world that the city was 'Fortress Berlin'
which would survive the war and last for ever. Hamburg and Vienna were the only
other places to be blessed with such massive edifices. The Flak towers in
Berlin were to be the first buildings of the proposed post-war remodelled city
named Germania which would replace old Berlin. The towers had thick concrete
walls, steel windows, air-conditioning and an independent Daimler-Benz
generating plant six metres underground. All had a hospital floor, and the Zoo
tower had one level in which the most valuable of Berlin's art treasures were
stored. The local residents were, at first, not happy to see their parks
disfigured in this way but they were later to be well pleased when certain
levels in the towers were thrown open to the public as air-raid shelters. The Humboldthain
tower had passages leading to the nearby Gesundbrunnen Station, one of the
deepest of the U-Bahn system. Up to 21,000 people at a time would take shelter
in the combined tower and U-Bahn during the coming winter. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another interesting aspect of Berlin's anti-bomber defences
is the extent of the decoy methods employed. Decoy fire sites were a feature of
every German city, but Berlin is believed to have had fifteen such sites,
including one particularly large one at Staaken, on the western approaches to
the city, which was based on the sets of a prewar film studio. One wartime
schoolboy Flakhilfer asked about the wartime rumour that one night several
bombers separated from the main stream and dropped some wooden bombs on the
Staaken decoy site! </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There was another, more serious 'decoy' story I was told in
Berlin that I had not encountered before. The Germans realized that the lakes
around Berlin were an important aid to the British H2S radar operators.
Consideration was given during the summer of 1943 to covering over these lakes
to prevent their distinctive radar reflections being used by the bombers. This
was not possible because of the amount of material required, but the Germans
did produce large numbers of timbered floats, each in a cruciform shape about
five metres across, which were moored at about 300-yard intervals, certainly on
the Tegeler See and probably on the Havel too. These two large lakes were on
the westerly route into Berlin. The effectiveness of these floats - called
Tripel- Spiegel- is not known, but they may have contributed to the
difficulties encountered by the Pathfinders in establishing their positions on
the marking runs into Berlin that winter. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So Berlin - with its tough population of mainly Prussian
stock, its great war factories and government buildings, its stoutly
constructed housing, its gradual introduction to the bombing war, its well
established fire and air-raid services, its Flak towers and underground
shelters, its powerful gun and searchlight defences, its range of decoy devices
- Berlin awaited the arrival of the bombers.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-41824893740418340202015-08-10T15:00:00.002+08:002015-08-10T15:00:31.953+08:00The greatest prize - Berlin <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis1WeFlzKOooyJ-ns6arPy0mIh707Gz1o0SfREwLSUAjx11MaKtrmQLivWXYtfwD1IlCT1kewYOGDAy3tqB7VzhEgy9EY9dYxZyqm7ENa5eZJOhSew1txX9ibDu7nJwF4GkKjjzj1-AhM/s1600/Lancaster_bomb_bay_Sept_1942_IWM_CH_17458.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis1WeFlzKOooyJ-ns6arPy0mIh707Gz1o0SfREwLSUAjx11MaKtrmQLivWXYtfwD1IlCT1kewYOGDAy3tqB7VzhEgy9EY9dYxZyqm7ENa5eZJOhSew1txX9ibDu7nJwF4GkKjjzj1-AhM/s400/Lancaster_bomb_bay_Sept_1942_IWM_CH_17458.jpg" width="380" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A typical Lancaster bomb load during the Berlin attacks comprised
high-explosive bombs, including a 4,000lb `cookie' and incendiaries. </i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Nicknamed the `Big City' by the crews of Bomber Command, the
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prospect: it meant the heaviest of defences and a long flight over
enemy-occupied territory. </div>
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Britain on the night of August 25, 1940, when 95 aircraft were dispatched. Five
more `ops' were flown over the next two weeks and others followed over the next
year. But difficulties in navigating accurately led to the small loads dropped
being widely dispersed and after November 1941 Berlin was not attacked again
until January 16/17, 1943. </div>
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The arrival of Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris as C-in-C
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navigation and targeting aids meant that by early 1943 Harris was ready for
what he described as his main offensive. </div>
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This campaign was to last a year and feature a series of
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a particular objective until it was deemed to have been destroyed. The
principal, and most effective, weapon for the campaign was the superb Avro
Lancaster.</div>
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Throughout the spring of 1943, the industrial heartland of
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From the outset it was established that for cogent tactical
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and new devices were introduced to outwit the Germans.</div>
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But the defenders were very adaptable. The RAF's
introduction of `Window', which disrupted radar pictures, led to the
development of new and highly effective tactics: single-engined Wilde Sau (Wild
Boar) fighters flew over the target to acquire bombers visually - followed
later by long-range radar-equipped Sahne Sau (Tame Boar) nightfighters. Both
were to reap a grim harvest through the coming winter. Before the campaign
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The Battle of Berlin witnessed the advent of Schrage Musik,
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The final raid of the Battle of Berlin came on March 30/31,
a `maximum effort' against Nuremberg, a diversionary strike to keep the
Luftwaffe guessing. A total of 96 aircraft fell, Bomber Command's worst night
of the war. Despite immense courage and unimaginable hardship and sacrifice by
the men of Bomber Command, the assault on the `Big City' ended in operational
failure that some historians have described as being not just a defeat, but a
disaster.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-16152074523236055362015-07-27T12:58:00.002+08:002015-07-27T12:58:31.554+08:00The Heavy Bomber in Air Support <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtRsNsuTFB230jd_c_vngmboZtsNJb_48xxBj6Ucv3j0dz51ceMxg0YissV70K_aRNFIlbv3iOyqt1R0M3cUzlmoK9PBzcT7d8nJOw8HFEWqtiCOLoh5l0VyXycBjQ1ZQOv9GofyDQg-4/s1600/bombing.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtRsNsuTFB230jd_c_vngmboZtsNJb_48xxBj6Ucv3j0dz51ceMxg0YissV70K_aRNFIlbv3iOyqt1R0M3cUzlmoK9PBzcT7d8nJOw8HFEWqtiCOLoh5l0VyXycBjQ1ZQOv9GofyDQg-4/s400/bombing.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>GIs look up at American bombers on their way to bomb German lines at the onset of Operation Cobra.</b></i><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdgmFK5gIfoKdcOT9-x1j86Vkaz0AsTpqXJK2UyCvSYFTCXBFCC7Ia2vK7HejnBWNeDneecFnSRuwOFdCma6Eo4cJkzKNDvgOGGDbgMxSnMGANQTDgtAOa6_af8IQXHDef05pLpuDV09M/s1600/CobraMap3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdgmFK5gIfoKdcOT9-x1j86Vkaz0AsTpqXJK2UyCvSYFTCXBFCC7Ia2vK7HejnBWNeDneecFnSRuwOFdCma6Eo4cJkzKNDvgOGGDbgMxSnMGANQTDgtAOa6_af8IQXHDef05pLpuDV09M/s400/CobraMap3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Once ashore at Normandy, the Allies
experienced a serious setback from the terrain. Farmers' fields were bordered
by thick hedgerows, a bocage that proved a natural boon to German defenders,
affording them cover while forcing the Allies to follow predictable paths of
advance around it. One of the most difficult problems of hedgerow fighting was
preventing tanks from riding up over the hedge and exposing their vulnerable
undersides to antitank fire. The solution was disarmingly simple. An inventive
sergeant fitted "tusks" to the prow of a tank, which pinned the tank
to the hedge and held it in place as the engine punched it through in a shower
of dirt. This "absurdly simple" device (in Bradley's words) freed the
Army's armored forces for a fast-moving mobile breakout across France. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Any breakout from the lodgement area would
require the insightful and creative use of air power, including bomber aircraft
such as the American B-17 and B-24 and the British Halifax and Lancaster
operating in a troop-support role. Altogether there were six major raids by
heavy bombers in support of breakout operations in Normandy. The first of these
involved 457 Halifax and Lancaster bombers from RAF Bomber Command on July 7,
in support of Montgomery's assault on Caen. The second was an even larger raid
by 1,676 heavy bombers and 343 light and medium bombers on July 18. On the
25th, American bombers of the Eighth and Ninth Air Forces struck at Saint-Lo,
preparatory to the First Army's breakout. A fourth attack on the 30th supported
the Second British Army south of Caumont. Then an Anglo-American raid on August
7-8 supported the attack of the First Canadian Army toward Falaise from Caen,
and the sixth raid, again supporting the attack on Falaise, followed on August
14. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Overall, the Allied high command considered
these raids successful, and German soldiers caught in them testified to their
devastating (if short-lived) impact upon morale. Field Marshal Hans von Kluge,
Rommel's successor, complained that bomb-carpets buried equipment, bogged down
armored units, and shattered the morale of troops. Unfortunately, the terrain
disruption worked both ways: it hindered the attacker as much as the defender,
and, in fact, bought the Germans time to regain some composure and dig in for
the follow-on attack. If such air attacks were to be useful, they had to be
followed immediately by a follow-on ground assault. When this occurred, Allied
ground troops found German defenders dazed and prone to surrender. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">The
Price of Victory </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Unfortunately, heavy bomber missions could
cause serious problems. The first two strikes on Caen resulted in numerous
"collateral" casualties to French civilians. Sometimes friendly
troops were victims of misplaced bomb strikes. In the Normandy campaign, as in
other campaigns, air and land forces had to get used to working together.
Bradley remarked after the war that "we went into France almost totally
untrained in air-ground cooperation." It is difficult to accept this
statement at face value because the air and ground forces worked together with
an unprecedented harmony. Nevertheless, in the very early stages of Normandy
some "disconnects" did occur between the air and land communities.
Friendly troops experienced attacks from Allied fighter-bombers. To minimize this
danger, air and ground commanders arranged for friendly forces to pull back in
anticipation of an air strike against German positions. But if communication
failed and the strike did not come off, troops found themselves fighting twice
for the same piece of real estate as German forces moved back into the gap.
Soon commanders learned to follow-up air strikes with artillery barrages so
that friendly infantry and armor forces could close with the demoralized enemy
before he recovered and redeployed. Within six weeks after the Normandy
landing, air and land forces were so confident of working together that
fighter-bombers routinely operated as close as 300 yards to American forces.
This was not true, unfortunately, of strategic bomber operations, as the
strikes of late July and August clearly indicated. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The most publicized example of the
difficulties of operating heavy and medium bombers in support of ground forces
came during the preparatory bombardment for Operation Cobra, the breakthrough
attack at Saint-Lo that led to the breakout across France. The Cobra strikes
killed slightly over 100 GIs and wounded about 500. Without a doubt, the
strikes were badly executed, and serious command errors were made. The first
came on July 24, a cloudy day, when Cobra had been initially set for launch. A
postponement order reached the Eighth Air Force Commander, Lt. Gen. James H.
"Jimmy" Doolittle, too late: the Eighth's bombers were already
airborne. Most crews wisely refrained from bombing due to weather and returned
to base. Some found conditions acceptable and did drop. Friendly casualties
occurred in three instances. When another plane in the formation was destroyed
by flak, a bombardier accidentally toggled his bomb load on an Allied airstrip,
damaging planes and equipment. A lead bombardier experienced "difficulty
with the bomb release mechanism" and part of his load dropped, causing
eleven other bombardiers to drop, thinking they were over the target. Finally,
a formation of five medium bombers from the Ninth Air Force dropped seven miles
north of the target, amid the 30th Infantry Division. This latter strike
inflicted the heaviest casualties-25 killed and 131 wounded-on the first day
that Cobra was attempted. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The next day, in better weather, there were
three more friendly bombings, all by B-24s. First, a lead bombardier failed to
synchronize his bombsight properly, so that when he dropped-and eleven other
bombers dropped on his signal-a total of 470 100-lb high explosive bombs fell
behind the lines. Then a lead bombardier failed to properly identify the target
and took the easy way outbombing on the flashes of preceding bombs. A total of
352 260-lb fragmentation bombs fell in friendly lines. In the third case, a
command pilot overrode his bombardier and dropped on previous bomb flashes;
previous bombs had been off target but within a safe "withdrawal"
zone. The pilot's bombs fell within friendly territory. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">All of the above errors were incidental to
the real causes of the tragic bombings-the restricted size of the bomb zone and
confusion over whether the air attack would be flown perpendicular or parallel
to the front lines. The Army wanted a parallel attack so that short bombs would
not land in friendly territory. (Actually, this approach would not guarantee an
absence of friendly casualties.) The AAF, concerned about the run-in to the
target and enemy antiaircraft fire, preferred to fly a perpendicular approach.
AAF bomber commanders also recognized that the "heavies" were not as
precise as the fighter-bombers. They asked Bradley to keep friendly troops at
least 3,000 yards from the bomb line; Bradley compromised on a minimal distance
of 1,200 yards, with a preceding fighter bomber attack to cover the next 250
yards so that, in fact, the heavy and medium bombers would strike no closer
than 1,450 yards-a distance a heavy bomber would cover in approximately fifteen
seconds. A distinct aiming point and a split-second precise drop were thus
critical. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Despite Bradley's later claims that the AAF
was enthusiastic over the strikes, evidence indicates that the strategic bomber
people were anything but enthusiastic. In general, the strategic bomber
commanders-British as well as American-believed that any diversion from their
strategic air campaign against the Nazi heartland weakened their effort. The
AAF leadership also had strong feelings- communicated directly to
Eisenhower-that the Cobra bombings were questionable because they would involve
the dropping of a large quantity of bombs in the shortest possible span of time
in a restricted bombing zone. However, the AAF was overruled and the operation
went forward. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Whenever American bombers executed a perpendicular run, Bradley
alleged that it violated a previous decision. After the short bombings of July
24, Bradley had ordered an immediate investigation of why the strike group had
flown a perpendicular course. The AAF replied that such a course had been
previously agreed upon, and ground forces had been informed. Shortly before his
death, in his autobiography, A General's Life, Bradley charged that the
"Air Force brass simply lied," though earlier writings had been far
more temperate. One wonders whether this bold statement merely reflected the
hardening of age. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In any case, Bradley reluctantly concurred
with AAF plans for another attack on July 25 (though he has stated he did so
because he was over an "impossible barrel"). During this series of
strikes occurred the most sensational casualty of Cobra. Lt. Gen. Leslie J.
McNair, former Commander of Army Ground Forces and currently the "commander"
of the fictional "1st Army Group," was killed in his foxhole by a
direct bomb hit as he waited to observe the follow-up ground attack. McNair's
death and the other friendly casualties infuriated the ground forces, perhaps
in part because they remembered the general's vociferous criticism of the air
support organization in 1942-43. Strangely, the tragedy seems not to have
harmed ground-air relations at higher command levels. Though Bradley has stated
that Eisenhower informed him that strategic bombers should no longer be used to
support ground forces, this is not evident from Eisenhower's written comments.
In fact, American "heavies" continued to be used in troop support
missions, notably in the German winter offensive. Eisenhower's comments after
Cobra's bombing were far less critical than might have been expected: </span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">The
closeness of air support given in this operation, thanks to our recent
experiences, was such as we should never have dared to attempt a year before.
We had indeed made enormous strides forward in this respect, and from the two
Caen operations [the strikes of July 8 and 18] we had learnt the need for a
quicker ground follow-up on the conclusion of the bombing, for the avoidance of
cratering and for attacks upon a wider range of targets to the rear and on the
flanks of the main bombardment area. Our technique, however, was still not yet
perfected, and some of our bombs fell short, causing casualties to our own men.
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Unfortunately, perfection in the
employment of comparatively new tactics, such as this close-support carpet
bombing, is attainable only through the process of trial and error, and these
regrettable losses were part of the inevitable price of experience</b>
[emphasis added]. </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Though the preparatory bombing was tinged
with faulty planning, sloppy execution, and bad luck, Operation Cobra itself
was a masterful operation. We will probably never know precisely who was
responsible for the short bombings. Certainly, the AAF was not entirely to
blame. John J. Sullivan's incisive examination of the Cobra operation rightly
concluded that there was no duplicity on the part of the AAF (much less
"lies"), and that, in fact, the AAF had been most reluctant to
undertake the operation at all. The ground commanders did not take adequate precautions
to protect their troops, and thus, Sullivan concluded, Bradley and his fellow
ground commanders bore "full responsibility" for the bombing
casualties to exposed troops. Yet, in fairness, the airmen must share some
responsibility-from Tedder and Leigh-Mallory, who did not supervise the
operation as thoroughly as they should have, to the individual aircrews who
botched their runs. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">While there is plenty of blame to go
around, one must temper criticism of the Cobra strikes with an appreciation for
the losses on the ground during the bitter hedgerow fighting and the effect of
the bombing on the German forces. The relatively minor casualties incurred by
friendly bombing and the bombing's unqualified success in shattering German
resistance (even Bradley was forced to admit that Cobra "had struck a more
deadly blow than any of us dared imagine") illustrate how petty the uproar
surrounding the bombings really was. Unfortunately, in the postwar folklore of
air-land operations, too often the short bombing is the only aspect of Cobra
that gets attention. Thus, it is refreshing to read Eisenhower's reasonable,
mature, and admirable judgment quoted above. The European Theater commander
never lost sight of the most important result: the Cobra bombing devastated
German forces and paved the way for the breakthrough that would trigger the
breakout and roll back the Wehrmacht to the German homeland itself.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-76055252402826701332015-07-27T12:44:00.001+08:002015-07-27T12:44:42.683+08:00Air Operations Against Japan, (1942–1945) <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">On May 14, 1945 472 B-29s attacked the area
in and around the Mitsubishi engine factory at Nagoya. Two nights later,
another visit to Nagoya devastated another four square miles of that city. On
May 23 and May 25, Tokyo was hit again. Although these two Tokyo raids had cost
43 B-29s, over 50 percent of the city had now been destroyed.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Alarmed at the increasing B-29 losses, a
change of tactics was ordered. In an attempt to confuse the enemy defenses and
to lure Japanese fighters into an air battle in which many of them would be
destroyed, high-altitude daylight attacks were temporarily resumed. On May 29,
454 B-29s appeared over Yokohama, but this time they were escorted by P-51
Mustangs from Iwo Jima. In the resulting dogfight, 26 Japanese fighters were
destroyed against the loss of four B-29s and three P-51s. Thereafter, the
Japanese hoarded their surviving fighters for a last-ditch effort against the
inevitable invasion force, and the air defense of cities became a lesser
priority. By June of 1945, Japanese interceptors were seen much less frequently
and the B-29s had free reign over all Japanese airspace.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">#</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Despite widespread awareness about the
vulnerability of the Japanese home islands to air attack—reinforced by the
results of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo on 18 April 1942—U.S. plans for an air
war against Japan remained vague until well into 1943 because of American
limitations in resources and technology. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The development of the Boeing B-29
Superfortress changed this situation. Eventually, more than 1,000 of the long-range
aircraft were deployed in the Twentieth Air Force under the direct control of
the Army Air Forces commander, General Henry “Hap” Arnold, subdivided into the
XX and XXI Bomber Commands. Under pressure to get results from his expensive
very-heavy bomber program, he fielded the new aircraft even before testing had
been completed. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In June 1944, B-29s from Major General
Kenneth Wolfe’s XX Bomber Command began bombing Japan from China as part of
Operation MATTERHORN. The campaign was plagued by logistical problems that got
worse when Japanese troops overran advanced Allied airfields in China. Arnold
replaced Wolfe with the USAAF’s premier problem-solver, Major General Curtis
LeMay. However, even he could not make MATTERHORN a success. Arnold’s greatest
hopes for an airpower victory over Japan rested with Brigadier General Haywood
“Possum” Hansell’s XXI Bomber Command, which began operations from the Mariana
Islands in November 1944. Hansell was one of the architects of the
precision-bombing doctrine, but his operations also had little success. </span></div>
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failures, cloud cover, and jet streams at bombing altitudes made precision
methods impossible. Hansell seemed unwilling to change his tactics, however,
and Arnold feared that he would lose control of the heavy bombers to Allied
Pacific theater commanders without better results, so he consolidated both
bomber commands in the Marianas under LeMay and relieved Hansell. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">LeMay instituted new training and
maintenance procedures but still failed to achieve useful results with daylight
high-altitude precision attacks. He decided to resort to low-level incendiary
raids at night. Although area-firebombing went against dominant Air Forces
doctrine, flying at low altitude reduced engine strain, required less fuel,
improved bombing concentration, avoided high winds, and took advantage of
weaknesses in Japanese defenses. LeMay’s systems analysts predicted that he
could set large enough fires to leap firebreaks around important industrial objectives.
His first application of the new tactics, Operation MEETINGHOUSE, against Tokyo
on the night of 9 March 1945, produced spectacular destruction and was the
deadliest air raid of the war. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Once enough incendiaries were stockpiled,
the fire raids began in earnest. Warning leaflets were also dropped, which
terrorized 8 million Japanese civilians into fleeing from cities. When General
Carl Spaatz arrived in July to take command of U.S. Army Strategic Air Forces
in the Pacific, including the Eighth Air Force redeploying from Europe, and to
coordinate strategic air operations supporting the invasion of Japan, he had a
directive to shift the air campaign from cities to transportation. But there
was too much momentum behind the fire raids, sustained by operational tempo,
training programs, and bomb stockage. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">By the time Spaatz arrived, naval carrier
strikes were also hitting key industrial objectives in Japan. More important, a
submarine blockade had crippled the Japanese economy, the Russians were about to
attack Manchuria, and Spaatz maintained direct command over the 509th Composite
Group of B-29s specially modified to carry atomic bombs. Directed by Washington
to deliver these weapons as soon as possible after 3 August, Spaatz ordered the
attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These different elements combined with the
incendiary campaign to comprise the series of blows that produced Japanese
surrender. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">As with the atomic bomb, there is still
debate over the effects and morality of the firebombing raids. LeMay’s bombers
burned out 180 square miles of 67 cities, killed at least 300,000 people, and
wounded more than 400,000. His 313th Bomb Wing also sowed 12,000 mines in ports
and waterways, sinking almost 1 million tons of shipping in about four months.
LeMay remained convinced that his conventional bombing could have achieved
victory by itself. LeMay, his tactics, and the legacy of the atomic bombs would
be a primary influence in the shaping of the new United States Air Force.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">References</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Hansell, Haywood S. Jr. Strategic Air War Against Japan.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-40145704082031003802015-07-14T22:10:00.002+08:002015-07-14T22:10:27.787+08:00381st Bombardment Group (Heavy)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3q59rZRodC7UJLxoS5DB8fmNyKHPFTAULG9LHkflu9xwNQlF6jwj7AbqXyJiZxIoYgXcuH3bWJbgbSJVDNx9SfPjOK5cRDKXj5oIf8Y_TIj4jNf_ERkjlws7KS9-CFzptnVEFhnUcMHs/s1600/50f476805b456.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="315" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3q59rZRodC7UJLxoS5DB8fmNyKHPFTAULG9LHkflu9xwNQlF6jwj7AbqXyJiZxIoYgXcuH3bWJbgbSJVDNx9SfPjOK5cRDKXj5oIf8Y_TIj4jNf_ERkjlws7KS9-CFzptnVEFhnUcMHs/s400/50f476805b456.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>B-17G Fortresses of the 381st Bomb Group are escorted by a P-51B of the 354th Fighter Squadron, Summer-Fall 1944.</b></i><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdEBohfnClyzdukVG4JnoRaCPaXaDi4bkfo3-_tUxYCzD_Yg9uzlxiUY0rdDIEkARclf2UkR5HFwqdkx6j7rRRZBfRWnYtaEb9TKtIzCntYeoQiwDEeXi5QPN7IUdMYOhxfzoLqNtFBnA/s1600/381st-b-17s-in-formation.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdEBohfnClyzdukVG4JnoRaCPaXaDi4bkfo3-_tUxYCzD_Yg9uzlxiUY0rdDIEkARclf2UkR5HFwqdkx6j7rRRZBfRWnYtaEb9TKtIzCntYeoQiwDEeXi5QPN7IUdMYOhxfzoLqNtFBnA/s400/381st-b-17s-in-formation.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In June 1943 the quiet English countryside around the village of
Ridgewell in northwest Essex was transformed by the arrival of the 381st Bomb
Group with its B-17 Flying Fortresses. The subsequent battle in the skies over
Europe witnessed the 381st, in concert with their fellow-airmen with the Mighty
Eighth, striking 297 times at Hitler’s Fortress Europe and dropping over 22,000
tons of ordnance in the process. The cost to the group was 131 aircraft and
over 1200 combat crew missing in action, sustained during the course of a
fiercely contested struggle stretching over 1000 days.</i></b></div>
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The 381st Bombardment Group was activated on Jan. 1, 1943,
with Lt. Col. Joseph J. Nazarro designated as commanding officer.</div>
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The 381st Bombardment Group began its training at Pyote,
Texas. The core for the new organization was virtually hand-picked from the 39th
and 302nd Bombardment Groups by the lieutenant colonel. They would be based out
of Ridgewell, England.</div>
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Soldiers made up the four squadrons arrived in Pyote, Texas,
for phase training. The station had only been in existence about four months
and living conditions were somewhat primitive. Training aids and air supplies
were practically nonexistent.</div>
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Beginning from scratch, they built up a system of training
that eventually produced the hottest outfit to reach the European Theatre of
Operations, an organization noted particularly for its ability to fly
formation.</div>
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April 2, 1943 was the final training flight, a monster sea
search mission from the West Coast. The operation was the most ambitious
air-sea maneuver attempted in the United States.</div>
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There were 100 bombers plus escorting fighters over San
Francisco at one time, a display of air power that set newspaper front pages on
fire.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Constituted as the 381st Bombardment Group (Heavy) on 28
October 1942. Activated on 3 November 1942. Used B-17's in preparing for duty
overseas. Moved to RAF Ridgewell England, May–June 1943, and assigned to Eighth
Air Force. The 381st was assigned to the 1st Combat Bombardment Wing of the 1st
Bombardment Division.</div>
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The 381st Bomb Group operated chiefly against strategic
objectives on the Continent. Specific targets included an aircraft assembly
plant at Vélizy-Villacoublay, an airdrome at Amiens, locks at St Nazaire, an
aircraft engine factory at Le Mans, nitrate works in Norway, aircraft plants in
Brussels, industrial areas of Münster, U-boat yards at Kiel, marshalling yards
at Offenberg, aircraft factories at Kassel, aircraft assembly plants at
Leipzig, oil refineries at Gelsenkirchen, and ball-bearing works at
Schweinfurt.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Group received a Distinguished Unit Citation for
performance on 8 October 1943 when shipyards at Bremen were bombed accurately
in spite of persistent enemy fighter attacks and heavy flak, and received a
second DUC for similar action on 11 January 1944 during a mission against
aircraft factories in central Germany.</div>
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Aircraft from the 381st participated in the intensive
campaign of heavy bombers against enemy aircraft factories during Big Week,
20–25 February 1944, and the Group often supported ground troops and attacked
targets of interdiction when not engaged in strategic bombardment.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Group supported the Normandy invasion in June 1944 by
bombing bridges and airfields near the beachhead. Attacked enemy positions in
advance of ground forces at Saint-Lô in July 1944. Assisted the airborne
assault on Holland in September. Struck airfields and communications near the
battle zone during the Battle of the Bulge, December 1944 – January 1945.
Supported the Allied crossing of the Rhine in March 1945 and then operated
against communications and transportation in the final push through Germany.</div>
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After V-E Day, the 381st Bomb Group returned to Sioux Falls
AAF, South Dakota in July 1945 and was inactivated on 28 August.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.381st.org/Home.aspx" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.381stbg.org/" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.8thafhs.org/bomber/381bg.htm" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.381st.com/" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/ridgewell/381stBG.htm" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-60128269911513099312015-07-14T22:05:00.001+08:002015-07-14T22:05:06.670+08:00Eighth USAAF Ordeal and Triumph I<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiQoT5gnERSwSbDplX6aYqzTmx0WXCOuZMkHniv_1nycBew_n3NQeL9sFGn4cPXuzerUddq0egS32xD7CvfOjIdf6FEQSdpO0ObJRL_-27SUKCPpkGkQks9iSdwGIZ5ccCTFlgC8-A-nE/s1600/b17s1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiQoT5gnERSwSbDplX6aYqzTmx0WXCOuZMkHniv_1nycBew_n3NQeL9sFGn4cPXuzerUddq0egS32xD7CvfOjIdf6FEQSdpO0ObJRL_-27SUKCPpkGkQks9iSdwGIZ5ccCTFlgC8-A-nE/s400/b17s1.gif" width="400" /></a></div>
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The increasing intensity of the U. S. daylight heavy-bomber
offensive and the new tactics of the fighter escorts posed an insoluble problem
to the Luftwaffe's day-fighter forces. These forces already labored under the
self-imposed handicaps of faulty organization and incompetent higher
leadership. From October 1943 through March 1944, Goering, Commander in Chief
of the Luftwaffe, attempted to cope with the deteriorating air situation by
strictly enforcing a policy of ignoring the fighter escort and attacking the
heavy bombers. Maj. Gen. Adolph Galland, who commanded the Luftwaffe day
fighter force, protested vociferously against this directive, claiming that it
unnecessarily handcuffed his pilots. German pilots under orders to avoid
American fighters were put on the defensive and robbed of the aggressiveness
needed for successful fighter-to-fighter combat. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Other German wartime critics advocated attacking the escorts
at the earliest possible point to force them to jettison their drop tanks and
reduce their range. This apparently simple stratagem demonstrated the depth of
the German defensive problem. The Luftwaffe did not base substantial numbers of
fighters in France for three reasons: they would be vulnerable to harassing
raids from medium bombers and fighter-bombers, their bases would require
additional manpower for heavy antiaircraft defenses and for ground defense
against partisans, and their supply dumps would stretch logistical links as
well as offer targets to air raids. To catch incoming U. S. fighters, German
fighters would have to scramble from western Germany or eastern France.
Provided enough of them avoided and survived the RAF fighter sweeps vectored
precisely by radar and "Y" Service, and provided they distinguished
American from hunting British groups, the German fighters would then have to
compel all the Americans to strip (jettison) their tanks. Otherwise an American
group would leave behind one squadron to deal with the few penetrating Germans
and continue onward. Of course, all Luftwaffe fighter aircraft committed to
this operation would be unavailable to attack the heavy bombers over Germany. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If the Luftwaffe had waited until the RAF was out of range
to begin its attack on the U. S. fighters, much of the advantage of forcing the
stripping of tanks would have evaporated. In any case, the Eighth's fighter
groups actively sought combat with the Luftwaffe, whether flying to or
departing escort duty. It is difficult to see what the tactic of forcing the
Eighth's fighters to jettison early would have accomplished other than to play
directly into Spaatz's and Doolittle's hands by provoking air battles not only
within range of all AAF fighters but within the reach of short-range RAF
fighters as well. If the Luftwaffe wished to begin the battle over France
instead of deep over the Reich, all the better. Given the growing technical
inferiority of German aircraft, the relative lack of training and experience of
German fighter pilots, and the superior numbers of Allied fighter aircraft,
such a policy could have only one result: even greater disaster for the Luftwaffe. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To some extent the charges against Goering were typical of
the postwar scapegoating indulged in by German generals. Goering and Hitler
presented obvious, large, and defenseless targets. After March 1944, when the
Luftwaffe's situation had worsened, Goering authorized one fighter group from
each fighter division to attack and divert American escorts. Granting
permission for diversionary operations instead of all-out attacks on American
fighters did not, of course, return the initiative to the German fighter
pilots, but it showed more flexibility on Goering's part than his subordinates
tended to attribute to him. Also at the end of March, Goering responded to the
pleas of his subordinates by consolidating the three defensive air commands
facing the American bombers. He gave operational control of three of the most
important of the Reich's western air defenses to the Luftwaffe's I Fighter
Corps. Before then the I Fighter Corps, (responsible for northern air defense
sectors, coastal areas devoted to naval operations, the Berlin area, and
industrial districts of the Rhineland, Westphalia, and central Germany), the
7th Fighter Division (responsible for the defense of southern Germany,
especially the industrial areas of Frankfurt-am- Main, Mannheim, Stuttgart, Nuremberg,
Munich, and Augsburg), and Fighter Command Ostmark, (charged with defending
vital Austrian targets such as Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Steyr, and Linz) had
operated semiautonomously. Each had forces inadequate to defend its sector, but
there was no central operational control mechanism capable of forcing the
commands to cooperate with each other. This was an important factor in the
Luftwaffe's inability to concentrate all of its defensive strength on the
attacking U. S. forces. The shortage of fighters to apply against its opponent
was as much a function of the Luftwaffe's own inefficiency as it was of the
heavy losses inflicted by the Americans. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ever larger numbers of American long-range escorts succeeded
in wrecking the combined interceptor tactics the Germans had developed to
combat deepbomber penetrations. Before February 1944, the Germans almost always
waited to attack until the escort had left the bombers to return home, which
happened on any deep-penetration raid in 1943. Waiting to attack until the
escort left allowed for basing deep within Germany, and for defensive aircraft
to be concentrated after the bombers had committed to a specific route and
probable destination. Fighters could concentrate without being attacked. During
the Schweinfurt missions and later, German twin-engine fighters had stayed
beyond range of the bombers' defensive armament and shelled them with 210mm
rockets, adapted from the German rocket mortar and known by the ground troops
as the "screaming meemie." When the bombers loosened their positions
to avoid rocket explosions, the single-engine fighters would attack the
attenuated formation. In the face of vigorous escorts this tactic did not work.
Not only were concentration areas liable to attack, so were home airfields. The
performance of the American single-engine fighter escorts so outclassed that of
the twin-engine German heavy fighters as to make the latter virtually helpless.
If the Germans wished to employ their heavy fighters at all, their light
fighters had to escort the twin-engine fighters, much to the detriment of
German morale and firepower directed against the bombers. By the end of March,
the twin-engine fighters seldom arose to defend against American daylight
raids. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The increasing numbers of American escorts forced the
Luftwaffe to modify its single-engine fighter tactics. As early as mid-December
1943, map exercises at I Fighter Corps Headquarters had demonstrated that
commitment of individual single-engine fighter groups alone had little chance
of success. A single group would become too involved in fighter-to-fighter
combat with the escorts. On December 29, 1943, I Fighter Corps ordered future
attacks on Allied heavy bomber formations to employ a wing formation of at
least three closely aligned groups to ensure that at least one group of
fighters penetrated to the bomber stream. These larger formations required
longer time to marshal, offered targets that were easier for Allied air
controllers to identify, and proved difficult for increasingly inexperienced German
fighter pilots. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Throughout March and far the rest of the air war against
Germany, U. S. fighter escorts so efficiently accompanied their bombers that
large U. S. losses resulted only when navigational or timing errors by either
bombers or fighters caused them to miss their rendezvous, or when a small
contingent of the escorts was overwhelmed by large numbers of enemy fighters,
which then broke through to attack the bombers. The March 6, 1944, Eighth Air
Force mission to Berlin, which will be discussed in detail below, illustrates many of the tactical and operational changes involved in the increased use of
escort fighters. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The harsh weather of the winter of 1943-1944 continued
unabated in March. It allowed only two days of visual bombing over Germany-on
March 8, when the Eighth lost 37 of 623 bombers dispatched against the Erkner
Ball Bearing Works in Berlin and on March 18, when it lost 43 of 738 bombers
that attacked airfields and aircraft assembly plants in central and southern
Germany. The 80 bombers lost in those two days made them, aside from the 69 of
730 lost in the March 6 mission on Berlin, the worst two days of the month. A
lack of visual bombing opportunities did not prevent the Eighth from launching
full-scale efforts of 400 or more heavy bombers on fifteen of the month's days. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Eighth had attempted to launch two large missions
against Berlin on March 3 and 4. Bad weather had stopped both in their tracks,
but not before fighters, which missed the recall, appeared over Berlin on March
3 and a lone wing of B-17s (the 13th Combat Wing from Curtis LeMay's 3d
Bombardment Division), became the first of the Eighth's bombers to hit the
German capital by pushing through heavy clouds on March 4. These efforts
alerted the Germans to the Eighth's intentions. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On March 6, a total of 730 American bombers, taking three
hours to assemble and climb to bombing altitude (24,000 to 27,000 feet), formed
up over England and headed due east to Berlin. German radar spotted them and
their RAF Spitfire escort as soon as they left their bases and tracked them for
the entire mission. American escort consisted of 801 fighters (thirteen Eighth
Air Force and four Ninth Air Force groups). Eleven groups of P-47s (615
aircraft) provided the second leg of the penetration escort. Three groups of
P-38s (86 aircraft), one of which turned back because of an excessive number of
engine failures, supplied medium-range escort, and four groups of P-51s (100
aircraft) flew deep escort. Three groups of the P-47s flew two missions, providing
return escort on their second flight. For the far reaches of the trip the
bombers had none too many escorts. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Seventy miles east of the Dutch-German border, at the
practical P-47 range limit, the B-17s of the 3d Bombardment Division grouped in
a sixty-mile-long column of combat wing pairs and ran smack into the middle of
a concentration of perhaps 150 German single-engine fighters. The small number
of P-38s operationally available for that leg of the relay left the bombers
underescorted. German ground controllers, having detected an escort gap in the
center of the column, sent small forces to the head and tail of the U. S. force
to distract and pin the escort, and then threw the remaining 100 fighters at
the momentarily unprotected center. In less than thirty minutes the aggressive
German attack downed perhaps twenty bombers of the 3d Bombardment Division. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The attack singled out the 100th Bombardment Group. In
fierce air combat at 24,000 feet and at 43 degrees below zero the group took a
fearful beating. As it had so often before and would again, the sky over
Germany filled with the carnage of air battle. Bf 109s and FW19Os dived and
twisted through the bombers' formation, whose gunners tried futilely to keep
them at bay. At one point an attacking Bf 109 dived through the formation,
apparently enveloped in flames. Three gunners on three different bombers
claimed and were awarded a sure kill.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>After diving below the clouds, the German pilot landed his slightly
injured aircraft at his home field. </div>
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As the fight continued, the American pilots, sweating
profusely despite the cold, in leather clothes and restrictive oxygen masks,
dared not try any but the slightest wobble of evasive action for fear of
crashing into each other in formation. Once a bomber spouted smoke or flames
and, laboring, fell back from the safety of the formation, the fighters
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The crew of a fatally injured bomber had little time to
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surfaces of their own bombers when the slipstream grabbed them as they exited
and brutally pushed them to the rear. Anyone who bailed out started a five-mile
descent to ground by falling through other bomber formations, perhaps meeting
grisly death on props and leading wing edges. Soon the sky filled with falling
men, loose hatch covers, ejected shell casings, and spinning pieces of debris.
Parachutes-white U.S. and brown German, either of which could be collapsed by
the close passage of aircraft--dotted the sky. </div>
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slow twin-engine Bf 110s and Me 210s, made even clumsier by the large racks and
rockets carried under their wings, attempted to close within rocket range of U.
S. bombers, American escorts sliced through their formations killing or
scattering the Zerstorers (destroyers), leaving the survivors shaken. On March
6, Zerstorergeschwader Horst Wessel scrambled nine aircraft: two aborted
because of mechanical problems, one was damaged, five were lost in air-to-air
combat (with one pilot killed and four wounded), and the unit's commander landed
his damaged plane at a different airfield. When the single-engine FW 190s and
Bf 109s formed up to assault the bombardment divisions, squadrons of P-51s struck
them first, disrupting their attack formations and pursuing them as they
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As the fighters dueled, a P-51 stuck on the tail of an FW
190, shredding it with bullets from its six .50-caliber machine guns. The
German pilot huddled behind the armor in his cockpit, finally abandoning his
ruined aircraft. Back in England, review of P-51 gun cameras clearly showed the
German leaving his plane, which blew up a few moments later. The American pilot
gained a kill and another small brightly painted swastika on the side of his
plane. Eighth Air Force public relations officers passed the film to the press,
which recorded for the American home front the death of another of the Nazi's
vaunted fighter planes. </div>
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The 2d Bombardment Division, just behind the 3d, saw only
two German fighters in the same defensive area. Over Berlin the Germans
concentrated seventy- five twin-engine day and night fighters, escorted by
about twenty-five single- engine fighters. They attacked the leading elements
of the 1st Bombardment Division, the first division over the city, and
attempted to saturate the defending escort. They were the only heavy opposition
and they ceased as the 1st left the target area. </div>
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One of the bombers lost over Berlin that day carried to
earth with it the Commander of the 4th Combat Wing, Brig. Gen. Russ Wilson. In
all, enemy fighters accounted for 41 bombers, 4 more landed in Sweden, and the
remaining 24 fell victim to antiaircraft fire or accidents. Six more heavy
bombers had sustained enough damage to be not repairable. The totals amounted
to 75 heavy bombers lost or not repairable, 347 heavy bombers damaged, and 11
escort fighters lost. Nor had the bombing been accurate; most of the 1,648 tons
of bombs and 2,448,000 propaganda leaflets fell on areas other than their
primary targets, the industrial suburbs. USSTAF admitted, "Generally poor
results were obtained in Berlin area." <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Spaatz reported to Arnold that the Eighth had
hit none of its primary targets. Perhaps its crews were tired or rattled by
their losses. An Allied intelligence report aptly summed up the day:
"Thus, on this occasion, due no doubt to skillful handling, a good
appreciation of our intentions, and good flying weather, the Luftwaffe gave few
of the expected indications of rigor mortis." On the return trip American
fighters claimed 1 German aircraft destroyed and 12 damaged on the ground. Ten
hours after takeoff the bombers landed back in England. </div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-69746830207437241192015-07-14T22:03:00.001+08:002015-07-14T22:03:19.671+08:00Eighth USAAF Ordeal and Triumph II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
A comparison of this raid with the Schweinfurt raids of
August 17, 1943, and October 14, 1943, reveals how the air war had changed. One
indication of the intensity of bomber versus fighter combat is the number of
fighters claimed by bomber gunners. The numbers claimed had no relation
whatever to actual German losses, but they did indicate the frequency of
attack, the activity of the gunners, and the ferocity and duration of the
attack perceived by the bomber crews. During the August 17, 1943,
Regensburg-Schweinfurt mission (Eighth Air Force Mission no. 84) 346 bombers
lost 60 of their own and claimed 288 German fighters destroyed, 37 probably
destroyed, and 99 damaged. In fact, The Germans lost 34 fighters shot down, 12
damaged beyond repair, and 25 damaged. On October 14, 1943 (Eighth Air Force
Mission no. 115), the 291 attacking American bombers again lost 60 of their own
number and claimed 186 German fighters shot down, 27 probably destroyed, and 89
damaged. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Luftwaffe actually lost 31 destroyed, 12 written off, and 34
damaged. On March 6, the 730 American bombers lost 69 but claimed only half of
the number of Germans as in the earlier two contests: 97 German fighters
destroyed, 28 probably destroyed, and 60 damaged. A far larger force had
suffered a 9.5 percent loss rate (half of that of the two earlier missions) and
suffered far less contact with enemy fighters. Antiaircraft fire accounted for
one-third of the bombers lost in the Berlin raid, a much higher percentage than
in the Schweinfurt raids, that reveals the decline in German fighter
effectiveness. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As to escort statistics for the three raids, in August 1943,
VIII Fighter Command dispatched 240 short-range P-47s; they claimed nineteen
kills, three probables, and four damaged. In October, 196 P-47s newly outfitted
with small drop tanks, escorting their bombers as far as Aachen, claimed thirteen
kills, one probable, and four damaged. In the Berlin raid, however, the P-47s,
whose range had just reached its maximum in February 1944 with the employment
of new, larger tanks, claimed thirty-six kills, seven probables, and twelve
damaged. The P-38s, which had an ineffective day, claimed three kills and one
damaged. The P-51s, which defended the bombers over the target and during deep
stretches when desperate Luftwaffe pilots could no longer wait for them to
depart and had to attack before they themselves ran out of fuel, claimed
fourty-three destroyed, one probable, and twenty damaged. One hundred P-51s
bore the brunt of the battle and, in losing only five of their number, achieved
an 8-to-1 kill ratio. The claims of the American fighters were many times more
accurate than those of the bombers. Each American fighter came equipped with
gun cameras, which verified their scores by actually picturing bullet strikes
on German aircraft. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The war diary of the Luftwaffe I Fighter Corps, however,
only acknowledged that eighteen of its fighters had been destroyed and
thirty-nine had been more than 60 percent damaged. The I Fighter Corps claimed
that ninety-five bombers and fifteen American fighters had been definitely
destroyed and ten bombers probably destroyed. Obviously, aircraft combat claims
were subjective. The Germans had lost heavily enough that they offered no
concentrated opposition over the return route, even though they had sufficient
time to land, refuel, and rearm. Some of them managed to pick off several
stragglers. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Two subsequent raids on March 8 and 9 met less opposition,
even though the weather on March 8 allowed visual bombing and, therefore,
excellent conditions for Luftwaffe takeoffs, landings, and air-to-air
interceptions. The Americans lost 37 bombers and 18 fighters, while their
fighters claimed 79 destroyed, 8 probables, and 25 damaged, plus 8 destroyed, 4
probably destroyed, and 7 damaged on the ground. In this attack, few
twin-engine fighters presented themselves, presumably because they had suffered
severely two days earlier. The March 9 mission, conducted in complete cloud
cover all the way to, over, and from Berlin, encountered only 15 interceptors.
The Germans did not wish to expend their force in questionable takeoff and
landing conditions. For the week, the Eighth wrote off 153 heavy bombers lost
attacking Berlin, only 25 fewer than during Big Week. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By the end of March 1944, the Eighth had written off 349
heavy bombers- 23.3 percent of its force. Ominously for the Germans, so heavily
had the Eighth been reinforced that this figure represented a sortie loss rate
of only 3.3 percent-a drop from both January and February. The AAF official
history claimed that "by April 1, 1944 the GAF was a defeated force."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The events of April 1944, a black month for the Eighth, tend
to refute that claim. The weather in April, as in March, proved poor.
Nevertheless, the Eighth launched strikes of more than 400 heavy bombers on
fifteen of the month's days, thirteen of the attacks on targets inside Germany;
nine of those strikes employed, for at least some of the groups involved,
visual methods of sighting. The first raid of the month, on April 1, set the
tone for the entire month-it was a fiasco. Of 440 heavy bombers dispatched,
only 165 bombed targets, and some of those bombed the town of Schaffhausen in
neutral Switzerland, angering the Swiss and causing both the AAF and the U. S.
government a great deal of expense and embarrassment. Half of the force ran
into heavy weather and turned back. The remainder scattered widely throughout
southwestern Germany and bombed targets of opportunity; some bombed 120 miles
south of their assigned objectives. Luckily, the weather played no favorites
and prevented the Germans from taking full advantage of the Eighth's scattered
formations-only 12 bombers failed to return. The Germans may also have chosen
to conserve their fighter forces depleted in March's air battles. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On April 22, the Germans initiated a new tactic by
infiltrating the bomber stream as it approached its bases to land and shooting
down fourteen late returnees as they tried to touch down in the dark. This
tactic, fortunately not repeated, sent a chill throughout the Eighth, which
feared that the Germans had finally begun to take advantage of the heavy
bombers at their weakest moments-when they milled about, out of formation, in
the air over their congested airfields waiting to land in the evening or to
form up in the morning. These periods, sometimes hours long, were clearly
visible to the Germans on their radar equipment. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On April 29, the Eighth lost sixty-three heavy bombers over
one of the Reich's most heavily defended targets, Berlin. In this raid, as in
others, the heaviest losses were taken by groups that failed to meet their
escorts. Brig. Gen. Orvil A. Anderson, the Eighth's operations officer, had an
immediate first impression that the April 29 mission was "the poorest
operation . . . I've seen during the year . . . I've been here." Calling
the mission "poorly executed all the way through," Anderson said,
"It can go down on the records as one of the dumbest ones we've done. From
the point of execution it just didn't click nothing clicked." The last
major raid of the month had proved more costly and just as poorly managed as
the first. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Eighth embarked on a more successful tack when it
initiated the practice of flying fighter sweeps in weather unsuitable for
bombers. On April 5 and 16, hundreds of fighters attacked airfields in western
and central Germany. Spaatz, reporting to Arnold on previous sweeps, said,
"Eighth Air Force fighters inaugurated a series of sweeps against
airdromes, transportation, and Flak towers, which will be increased in scope
and should prove very demoralizing to the Hun." A week later, Spaatz
instructed the AAF Public Relations Office in Washington: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In order to destroy
the Luftwaffe it is essential that emphasis be given to the destruction of
planes on the ground as well as in the air and that our pilots be encouraged in
strafing operations by official and public credit for their accomplishments. .
. . Recommend that Public Relations policy in US be adjusted to support present
need for emphasis on strafing. </i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In an account of April 5, Spaatz emphasized to General Giles
that properly conducted fighter sweeps inflicted real attrition on the
Luftwaffe by destroying its aircraft on the ground and demoralizing personnel.
Spaatz added, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Inasmuch as <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">the pilots are briefed to shoot up any
moving target within Germany</b>, [emphasis added] 750 or 1000 fighter aircraft
roaming deep into Germany is evidence to the German people of the GAF's
weakness and no amount of Goebbels' propaganda can counteract this impression.
It is my plan to keep this type of attack going. </i></div>
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The rise in the number of claims of enemy aircraft damaged
or destroyed on the ground by Eighth Air Force fighters amply illustrates the
increasing use of the counterair sweep; from 1 plane in the last two weeks of
January to 40 in February, to 113 in March and 712 in the first twelve days of
Apri1. This tactic was not employed without cost. Combined with fighter attacks
in support of preinvasion operations, it sent fighter losses up from 232 in
March to 338 in April to 475 in May. Many of the best of the Eighth's fighter
pilots lost their lives or spent the rest of the war in prisoner-of-war (POW)
camps because of the intense light antiaircraft fire they encountered. Although
they were hated by their pilots, these missions increased Luftwaffe attrition. </div>
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In April 1944, the Eighth Air Force wrote off as lost or not
repairable 422 heavy bombers, more than in any other month of the air war over
Europe. This represented a loss of about 25 percent of the heavy bombers on
hand in tactical units, an increase of 1.3 percent over March's figures. Despite
the addition of 6 new heavy bombardment groups, which raised the Eighth to a
total of 39 heavy bombardment groups and 1,872 heavy bombers, the sortie loss
rate climbed to 3.6 percent from March's 3.3 percent. The heavy-bomber losses
of the Fifteenth Air Force jumped from 99 to 214, many of those the result of
POINTBLANK missions. German losses remained high, too. Some 447 Luftwaffe
fighter pilots, 20 percent of the total force, would never fly combat again,
nor would 43 percent of their fighter aircraft. The Luftwaffe's home fighter
command lost 38 percent of its pilots. These figures had declined from the
previous month, but the loss of trained pilots could never be made good.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-27369772341647632332015-07-14T21:58:00.001+08:002015-07-14T21:58:51.234+08:00Birth of Strategic Bombing<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAnPFAEwZiNaNhfRsQqGZZaUOqS6IvF13TPGS1iJdRPJA8fSR4-ftAjI5Q1tKDWdwDQUSmwJRZnE-wG_Rx9khrsUp4hK7GdrBSU7Y0Wuid5i4XXCMSgTVXpXMAXmHD1rPxZ2Pf1j1U2vM/s1600/1335_LR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAnPFAEwZiNaNhfRsQqGZZaUOqS6IvF13TPGS1iJdRPJA8fSR4-ftAjI5Q1tKDWdwDQUSmwJRZnE-wG_Rx9khrsUp4hK7GdrBSU7Y0Wuid5i4XXCMSgTVXpXMAXmHD1rPxZ2Pf1j1U2vM/s400/1335_LR.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Strategic bombing first occurred during World War I when
belligerents on both sides used rigid airships and heavy aircraft to deliver
bombs on enemy targets far behind the front lines. Given the technology of the
time, air strikes were few in number, inaccurate, and had a minor military
impact. The psychological impact, however, was disproportionately large. The
reaction of the public and workforce was immediate, as evidenced by factory
absentee rates, the numbers of people fleeing cities for the countryside, and
the clamor for government action. This strong reaction was caused by the
novelty of the air weapon, not by its accuracy or destructiveness. </div>
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This belief in the psychological effects of strategic
bombing strongly affected the public, governments, and military leaders during
the interwar period. The three leading air theorists of this era—Giulio Douhet
(Italy),Hugh Trenchard (Britain), and William “Billy” Mitchell (United
States)—all assumed such a psychological impact in their projections of future
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If deterrence failed, however, airmen hoped that strategic
bombing would offer an antidote to the trench-warfare carnage of World War I.
Strategic bombing, so the argument went, could bypass the tactical battle and
strike directly at the “vital centers” of an enemy country. Strategic bombing,
in conjunction with surface operations, would quickly bring victory. The
intended targets of the bomber offensive were the industrial, economic,
transportation, and government centers of the enemy. Note that it was the objective
that determined whether a target was strategic or tactical, not the aircraft or
weapon being used. Douhet—but not Trenchard and Mitchell—also called for direct
attack on the population in the belief that their morale would break and they
would demand an end to the war.</div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
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Strategic bombing during World War II was the sustained
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populations in order to terrorize, disorganize, and disrupt their usual
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Strategic bombing during World War II began on 1 September
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bombardment campaign. As the war continued to expand, bombing by both the Axis
and the Allies increased significantly. The RAF flew its first strategic
bombing raid on Germany at Mönchengladbach on 11 May 1940 and in September
1940, the Luftwaffe began targeting British cities in 'The Blitz'. From 1942
onward, the British bombing campaign against Germany became less restrictive
and increasingly targeted industrial sites and eventually, civilian areas. When
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military targets could significantly reduce enemy industrial capacity and
production and in the opinion of its interwar period proponents, the surrender
of Japan vindicated strategic bombing.</div>
<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-61067990596849353622015-05-19T17:03:00.003+08:002015-05-19T17:03:58.656+08:00Tallboy and Grand Slam<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbWXFUhWoDRNni1SxVndKN_yFZku4t65sfQe1UKMUkwmynggaXFFqyyxZoeRm5SxTUV7obz-4-R2f58qQdMl58LeD4R1yjmqLTbyRrsJAGf4xjWocbEh0Ur_O38gbaDHIYjgaIhr18U58/s1600/RAF+bombs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbWXFUhWoDRNni1SxVndKN_yFZku4t65sfQe1UKMUkwmynggaXFFqyyxZoeRm5SxTUV7obz-4-R2f58qQdMl58LeD4R1yjmqLTbyRrsJAGf4xjWocbEh0Ur_O38gbaDHIYjgaIhr18U58/s400/RAF+bombs.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEga4D-KGgFrdswaojQZeSYNm2jrP78rhWbeBYKx9vB_C4PHGPBSwrRnlQdZVaKJDGKWsTs200_NXTIf5XlnrXaY5JoFg3XsVXDt0ds-XbCGZq0gjhHQS_p3LPVzks37Y8o-mdjnnP-753U/s1600/08_tall_boy.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="155" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEga4D-KGgFrdswaojQZeSYNm2jrP78rhWbeBYKx9vB_C4PHGPBSwrRnlQdZVaKJDGKWsTs200_NXTIf5XlnrXaY5JoFg3XsVXDt0ds-XbCGZq0gjhHQS_p3LPVzks37Y8o-mdjnnP-753U/s400/08_tall_boy.gif" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfCprYulfv2e-SD8bRO9nAYUg6tbDgzsKiUICwf_VAmng1bLOXtm1dv1pjY2kTSr2LjIk9PRW2x0bd9VBehxjtqCmQS9v3EPOs8mT9LZo18n2iNibWGQTumoELA72fHpmnCADsLPKxlUU/s1600/Grand_Slam_bomb_exploding_near_Arnsberg_viaduct_1945.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfCprYulfv2e-SD8bRO9nAYUg6tbDgzsKiUICwf_VAmng1bLOXtm1dv1pjY2kTSr2LjIk9PRW2x0bd9VBehxjtqCmQS9v3EPOs8mT9LZo18n2iNibWGQTumoELA72fHpmnCADsLPKxlUU/s400/Grand_Slam_bomb_exploding_near_Arnsberg_viaduct_1945.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Grand Slam bomb exploding near Arnsberg viaduct 1945</b></i>.</div>
<br />
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Lancasters distinguished themselves in the evening skies
over Europe by delivering 608,612 tons of bombs in 156,000 sorties. However,
they are best remembered for two very special attacks. The first, launched
against the Mohne and Eder dams on May 17, 1943, utilized the famous Barnes
Wallis "skipping bomb" that demolished its targets. The second fell
upon the German battleship Tirpitz in Norway. On November 12, 1944, 31
Lancasters armed with 12,000-pound "Tallboy" bombs finally sank the
dreaded raider in a fjord. By war's end, Lancasters had been modified to carry
the 22,000- pound "Grand Slam" bomb.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Barnes Wallis scaled down his proposals for his
gravity-assisted penetrating bomb, and in 1944 designed instead the 12,0001b
(5,400kg) Tallboy bomb, which could be carried by the current bombers. Later in
the war, the Avro Lancaster improved to such an extent that it could just
support a 10-ton payload and so, as we shall see, the 22,0001b (10,000kg) Grand
Slam bomb was finally put into production. It was a secret weapon of
unprecedented power. As in the case of the Tallboy bomb, the Grand Slam was
spin-stabilized by its fins and was built with a thick, heavy steel case to
allow it to penetrate deep layers of the ground unscathed. Dropped from high
altitude, it would impact at nearly the speed of sound. During manufacture, hot
liquid Torpex explosive was poured in to fill the casing and this took a month
to cool down and solidify. Torpex (named because it had been developed as a
TORpedo EXplosive) had more than 150 per cent the force of TNT The finished
bomb was so valuable that aircraft that could not drop their weapon in an
abortive mission were ordered to return to base and land with the bomb intact,
instead of jettisoning it over the open sea. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Barnes Wallis had planned to
create a 10-ton weapon in 1941, but it was not until June 1944 that the bomb
was ready for use. It was first dropped on the Saumur rail tunnel from Lancaster
bombers of 617 Squadron. No aircraft were lost on the raid, and one of the
bombs bored 60ft (18m) through the rock into the tunnel, blocking it
completely. These massive 'earthquake' bombs were also used on the great
concrete structures that the Germans were building to protect their rocket
storage bunkers and submarine pens, and caused considerable damage. The
Valentin submarine pens at Bremen, Germany, were made with reinforced concrete
roofs some 23ft (7m) thick yet they were penetrated by two Grand Slam bombs in
March 1945.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-45378540365946396852015-05-11T12:17:00.002+08:002015-05-11T12:17:27.627+08:00Japanese Home Islands Bombing<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyf-DGlVTyVR2f4_wy9RtzKd5xwBeFbPm1SKGdLJ4lrC_9EsJyuPEvqNM7BWTD02Ch2zrUTFjQ1YOh2hPkjw5PqGqc784_tz79Y7ZsaJ-TYm72EvSm3iK18AYdaszchygNbOgPcsumK-A/s1600/Olive-drab_painted_B-29_superfortress.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyf-DGlVTyVR2f4_wy9RtzKd5xwBeFbPm1SKGdLJ4lrC_9EsJyuPEvqNM7BWTD02Ch2zrUTFjQ1YOh2hPkjw5PqGqc784_tz79Y7ZsaJ-TYm72EvSm3iK18AYdaszchygNbOgPcsumK-A/s400/Olive-drab_painted_B-29_superfortress.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><i>YB-29 Superfortresses in flight.</i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
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On May 14, 1945 472 B-29s attacked the area in and around
the Mitsubishi engine factory at Nagoya. Two nights later, another visit to
Nagoya devastated another four square miles of that city. On May 23 and May 25,
Tokyo was hit again. Although these two Tokyo raids had cost 43 B-29s, over 50
percent of the city had now been destroyed.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Alarmed at the increasing B-29 losses, a change of tactics
was ordered. In an attempt to confuse the enemy defenses and to lure Japanese
fighters into an air battle in which many of them would be destroyed,
high-altitude daylight attacks were temporarily resumed. On May 29, 454 B-29s
appeared over Yokohama, but this time they were escorted by P-51 Mustangs from
Iwo Jima. In the resulting dogfight, 26 Japanese fighters were destroyed
against the loss of four B-29s and three P-51s. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thereafter, the Japanese
hoarded their surviving fighters for a last-ditch effort against the inevitable
invasion force, and the air defense of cities became a lesser priority. By June
of 1945, Japanese interceptors were seen much less frequently and the B-29s had
free reign over all Japanese airspace.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
#</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Despite widespread awareness about the vulnerability of the
Japanese home islands to air attack—reinforced by the results of the Doolittle
Raid on Tokyo on 18 April 1942—U.S. plans for an air war against Japan remained
vague until well into 1943 because of American limitations in resources and
technology.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The development of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress changed
this situation. Eventually, more than 1,000 of the long-range aircraft were
deployed in the Twentieth Air Force under the direct control of the Army Air
Forces commander, General Henry “Hap” Arnold, subdivided into the XX and XXI
Bomber Commands. Under pressure to get results from his expensive very-heavy
bomber program, he fielded the new aircraft even before testing had been
completed.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In June 1944, B-29s from Major General Kenneth Wolfe’s XX
Bomber Command began bombing Japan from China as part of Operation MATTERHORN.
The campaign was plagued by logistical problems that got worse when Japanese
troops overran advanced Allied airfields in China. Arnold replaced Wolfe with
the USAAF’s premier problem-solver, Major General Curtis LeMay. However, even
he could not make MATTERHORN a success. Arnold’s greatest hopes for an airpower
victory over Japan rested with Brigadier General Haywood “Possum” Hansell’s XXI
Bomber Command, which began operations from the Mariana Islands in November
1944. Hansell was one of the architects of the precision-bombing doctrine, but
his operations also had little success.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Poor facilities, faulty training, engine failures, cloud
cover, and jet streams at bombing altitudes made precision methods impossible.
Hansell seemed unwilling to change his tactics, however, and Arnold feared that
he would lose control of the heavy bombers to Allied Pacific theater commanders
without better results, so he consolidated both bomber commands in the Marianas
under LeMay and relieved Hansell.</div>
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<br /></div>
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LeMay instituted new training and maintenance procedures but
still failed to achieve useful results with daylight high-altitude precision
attacks. He decided to resort to low-level incendiary raids at night. Although
area-firebombing went against dominant Air Forces doctrine, flying at low
altitude reduced engine strain, required less fuel, improved bombing
concentration, avoided high winds, and took advantage of weaknesses in Japanese
defenses. LeMay’s systems analysts predicted that he could set large enough
fires to leap firebreaks around important industrial objectives. His first
application of the new tactics, Operation MEETINGHOUSE, against Tokyo on the
night of 9 March 1945, produced spectacular destruction and was the deadliest
air raid of the war.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Once enough incendiaries were stockpiled, the fire raids
began in earnest. Warning leaflets were also dropped, which terrorized 8
million Japanese civilians into fleeing from cities. When General Carl Spaatz
arrived in July to take command of U.S. Army Strategic Air Forces in the
Pacific, including the Eighth Air Force redeploying from Europe, and to
coordinate strategic air operations supporting the invasion of Japan, he had a directive
to shift the air campaign from cities to transportation. But there was too much
momentum behind the fire raids, sustained by operational tempo, training
programs, and bomb stockage.</div>
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<br /></div>
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By the time Spaatz arrived, naval carrier strikes were also
hitting key industrial objectives in Japan.More important, a submarine blockade
had crippled the Japanese economy, the Russians were about to attack Manchuria,
and Spaatz maintained direct command over the 509th Composite Group of B-29s
specially modified to carry atomic bombs. Directed by Washington to deliver
these weapons as soon as possible after 3 August, Spaatz ordered the attacks on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These different elements combined with the incendiary
campaign to comprise the series of blows that produced Japanese surrender.</div>
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<br /></div>
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As with the atomic bomb, there is still debate over the
effects and morality of the firebombing raids. LeMay’s bombers burned out 180
square miles of 67 cities, killed at least 300,000 people, and wounded more
than 400,000. His 313th Bomb Wing also sowed 12,000 mines in ports and
waterways, sinking almost 1 million tons of shipping in about four months.
LeMay remained convinced that his conventional bombing could have achieved
victory by itself. LeMay, his tactics, and the legacy of the atomic bombs would
be a primary influence in the shaping of the new United States Air Force.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
References Hansell, Haywood S. Jr. Strategic Air War Against
Japan. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-13034252887612076392015-05-11T12:13:00.003+08:002015-05-11T12:13:34.187+08:00Ira Clarence Eaker<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ira Eaker and Carl
Spaatz(left) were two brilliant officers whose careers intertwined, from before the
famous flight of the Question Mark in 1929 to the sending of the Eighth Air
Force against Germany. </i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Army Air Forces
general.</b></div>
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Ira Clarence Eaker was born in Field Creek, Texas, on April
13, 1896, and in 1917 he became a pilot in the Aviation Section, Signal Corps.
During January 1–7, 1929, he joined Carl A. Spaatz and Elwood Quesada on a
seven-day nonstop endurance flight over Los Angeles that required 41 in-flight
refuelings. In 1940 Eaker was selected to visit England and study the Royal Air
Force in combat and, the following year, he received command of the 20th
Pursuit Group at Hamilton Field, California. Once the United States entered
World War II, Eaker gained temporary promotion to brigadier general and
accompanied Spaatz to England to organize the VIII Bomber Command.</div>
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<br /></div>
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During the war, General Eaker personally led the first U.S.
B-17 bomber strike against German occupation forces in France (against Rouen on
17 August 1942). As commander of the Fifteenth Air Force in the Mediterranean,
he flew the first bombing raid from Italy into Germany, landing in the Soviet
Union after striking a series of military targets. He advocated precision
daylight bombing, a tactic that most Allied leaders were skeptical about. In
addition, he also developed the plan to bomb enemy targets around the clock
using U.S. B-17s to strike by day and Royal Air Force bombers to attack by
night.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In the fall of 1942, Eaker replaced Spaatz as commander of
the Eighth Air Force. In January 1943, during the Casablanca Conference, he
personally convinced Prime Minister Winston Churchill to continue precision
daylight bombing in concert with nighttime raids performed by the Royal Air
Force. In June 1943 Eaker transferred to the Mediterranean, and in April 1945
Eaker returned to Washington, D.C., as deputy commanding general of the Army
Air Forces, and its new chief of staff.</div>
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Before he retired from Air Force service in June
1947,General Eaker worked closely with General Spaatz and Assistant Secretary
of War W. Stuart Symington to establish a separate U.S. Air Force. Awards would
follow. He received the Silver Star, the Distinguished Flying Cross, and myriad
other military awards from other countries as well as the United States,
including a special Gold Medal from Congress in 1979.</div>
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<br /></div>
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After his Air Force retirement, General Eaker worked at the
Hughes Tool Company and Hughes Aircraft until 1957. For almost two decades, he
wrote a column on military affairs that was syndicated to 180 newspapers. He
died in 1987, two years after President Ronald Reagan awarded him his fourth
star. The wartime hero and aviation pioneer is buried at Arlington National
Cemetery.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-501600058224040602015-04-23T19:27:00.002+08:002015-04-23T19:27:33.207+08:00B-17 and B-24 in the 8th Air Force.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Most of this data comes from the 8th Air Force April 1945
monthly report, which includes 2 tables of effort, one for the B-17 and one for
the B-24, it notes casualty figures are not finalised as some reports still
have to come in from aircraft that landed in Europe, not back in Britain.</div>
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<br /></div>
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For example it seems the total number of heavy bombers
written off after a combat sortie for the war is 1,557 versus 1,562 given in
the April report.</div>
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In addition the sorties are for stated to be bombing
missions only, however the final 8th Air Force report has slightly higher
sortie figures, 330,866 versus 328,590 in the April report, so if a final
report can be found that splits B-17 and B-24 effort the numbers will vary
slightly from the ones presented here.</div>
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In terms of numbers the B-17 accounts for 68.9% of all 8th
Air Force heavy bomber sorties, 69.2% of such sorties that entered contested
airspace (credit sortie) and 70.2% of sorties reported as bombing (effective
sortie).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The average B-17 bomb load for
the war was 5,139.4 pounds versus 5,329.95 pounds for the B-24.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It means the B-17 dropped 69.45% of the bombs
dropped by the 8th Air Force heavy bombers.</div>
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As can be seen by the sortie percentages it seems the B-24
was more vulnerable at about every stage to factors causing the sortie to be
abandoned. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One reason seems to be a
different use of spare sorties, aircraft taking off used to replace any
aborting sorties, so formation left Britain at full strength.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some 4,621 B-17 sorties landed classified as
"unused spares" versus 302 B-24, which probably accounts for some of
the later differences in sortie abort rates.</div>
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Having said that some 91.4% of B-17 credit sorties were
classified as effective, versus 87.1% for the B-24.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So while 68.9% of heavy bomber sorties were
B-17s they accounted for 61.95% of mechanical, 58.7% of weather and 61.45% of
other reason aborted sorties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The B-17
was the more reliable as used by the 8th Air Force.</div>
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For 1944 and the first 4 months of 1945 the B-24 had an
accident rate on operations of 0.3 per 100 take offs and 1.01 accidents per
1,000 hours of non-operational flying, versus 0.22 and 0.97 respectively for
the B-17.</div>
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For the entire war 1.58% of B-17 credit sorties were Missing
In Action, versus 1.2% of B-24, partly this is the result of the losses in 1943
(nearly a quarter of total B-17 losses) but if you simply use the 1944 results
the loss figures actually increase, to 1.61% for the B-17 and 1.3% for the
B-24.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So unless the B-24 was
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figures indicate you were more likely to come home in a B-24.</div>
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The loss figures at first examination seem to be saying the
opposite to the anecdotal evidence, the figures are reporting the B-24 was the
more survivable, taking fewer losses and making it back with heavier
damage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alternatively in the damaged situation
it could be the B-24 was more prone to taking significant damage in a crash
landing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The figures indicate this was
the case, 0.5% of B-17 credit sorties were written off, versus 0.6% of B-24,
some 20% more than the B-17 but the B-17 missing to write off ratio is
approaching 40% more than the B-24.</div>
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was more likely to abandon the mission and more likely to crash but more likely
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The USAAF had 4 categories of damage, A, repairable within
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resources like a sub depot, B requiring a full Repair Depot to fix E write off.</div>
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For the war, using 293,025 credit sorties, there were 43,601
category A, 13,893 category AC, 593 category B and 1,557 category E, or 20.4%
of all credit sorties came back damaged enough to be classified as
damaged.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By year it was 27.4% in 1942,
30.9% in 1943, 21.1% in 1944 and 15.6% in 1945.</div>
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The top 4 months were all in 1943 and are the only figures
above 40%, being 48.4% in January, 43.9% in July, 42.4% in August and 41.7% in
October.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Being percentages these figures
are prone to big shifts when there are only a small number of sorties, in 1943
there were 22,099 heavy bomber credit sorties, versus 188,036 in 1944 and
81,912 in the first 4 months of 1945.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There were only 279 credit sorties in January 1943, but over 2,000 for
the other 3 months listed above.</div>
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The night bombers consistently reported higher MIA figures
than the day bombers for 1945, as a percentage of sorties, but it seems the
number damaged, including to write off stage, was around 2.8% of sorties
despatched.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Versus 15.6% for the 8th Air
Force credit sorties, which were about 90% of airborne sorties.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The extra maintenance requirements from
consistently having several times the number of damaged aircraft would have
been significant.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-15789731045945367112015-04-23T19:17:00.002+08:002015-04-23T19:17:44.729+08:00Bomber Command – British Aircraft<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
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When war clouds gathered in the 1930s, Winston Churchill and
a minority of others in the British government urged accelerated development
and production of military aircraft as it became increasingly apparent that
Germany, rearming in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles, was creating a large
and advanced air force. The outbreak of war caught Britain with an undersized
air force, and the nation consequently relied heavily on a variety of U.S.-
supplied aircraft. However, the British aircraft industry also produced some of
the most important planes of the war. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Among British bomber
aircraft, the most significant were: </b><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzsCawzellukAsjUUGZJLlr2xaQmHiYZ9MGYu9olCIG_j3kPISkPabWddt1o1Iw-gO0-oU7zP1LAfUNnX3r9IkW_TECBg5MZmcWxx-0LLIsfTifhCAxigbQ2k1VwABsMejW-mG7iPQNg0/s1600/uykfkuyfukyfiki.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzsCawzellukAsjUUGZJLlr2xaQmHiYZ9MGYu9olCIG_j3kPISkPabWddt1o1Iw-gO0-oU7zP1LAfUNnX3r9IkW_TECBg5MZmcWxx-0LLIsfTifhCAxigbQ2k1VwABsMejW-mG7iPQNg0/s1600/uykfkuyfukyfiki.jpg" height="400" width="291" /></a></div>
</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Armstrong Whitworth Whitley
V.</b> Powered by two 1,145-horsepower RR Merlin X engines, the Armstrong
Whitworth Whitley entered into Royal Air Force (RAF) service in March 1937. The
first of the heavy RAF night bombers, the aircraft was a mediocre performer,
with a top speed of 222 miles per hour and a service ceiling of 17,600 feet.
Range was 1,650 miles. After 1942, it was used by the RAF exclusively as a
trainer and glider tug. A total of 1,737 (all versions) were built. The Royal
Navy’s Fleet Air Arm operated the aircraft until 1945.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyhvK_AdqAVllCRM0I7jqE0T-OgYb4puJHT1fJBzGAA9cD3guHbdb7s0mjTlq2UKBIWPOUxCTcP0oCpGaNWx7MbPCVxmEB6ERbCJA-hK9k_uwqS59rWbUzTReDZf56Fp-nnPN54ztyzLo/s1600/kuukyfu.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyhvK_AdqAVllCRM0I7jqE0T-OgYb4puJHT1fJBzGAA9cD3guHbdb7s0mjTlq2UKBIWPOUxCTcP0oCpGaNWx7MbPCVxmEB6ERbCJA-hK9k_uwqS59rWbUzTReDZf56Fp-nnPN54ztyzLo/s1600/kuukyfu.jpg" height="273" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Avro Lancaster I.</b>
Becoming operational in March 1942, the Avro Lancaster was powered by four
1,460-horsepower RR Merlin XX engines and had a wingspan of 102 feet, a loaded
weight of 68,000 pounds, a top speed of 308 miles per hour, and a ceiling of
24,500 feet. Its effective range was 1,600 miles. This military workhorse,
produced in a quantity of 7,377, could carry a maximum bomb load of 22,000
pounds and was one of the great bombers of World War II, deserving a place
beside such American aircraft as the B-17, B-24, and B-29. Lancasters were the
most heavily used of British bombers, flying in excess of 156,000 operations
and delivering 608,612 tons of bombs on target. Reflecting the monumental cost
of the Strategic Bombing of Germany, 3,249 Lancasters were lost in action. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs5rE5G9780z5EyTiig9gfHHxNGEQJg4oMHQLLn6uMis13gtW6Y_cehQfyDXddF1IlQlN1H6Kg2HzCSV2CN2BLe8h0ygPrp-BvZ4pKJfb-6_99aRQqD0I8nApQ6datUevCeq5JwA6kgxk/s1600/bgfgtsfrdbg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs5rE5G9780z5EyTiig9gfHHxNGEQJg4oMHQLLn6uMis13gtW6Y_cehQfyDXddF1IlQlN1H6Kg2HzCSV2CN2BLe8h0ygPrp-BvZ4pKJfb-6_99aRQqD0I8nApQ6datUevCeq5JwA6kgxk/s1600/bgfgtsfrdbg.jpg" height="252" width="400" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Bristol Blenheim Mark
IV.</b> This bomber was developed from the Bristol model 142 civil transport,
and when it first became operational (in the Mark I version) in 1937, it was
actually faster than most RAF fighters. The Mark IV version, operational by
1939, had a top speed of 266 miles per hour, a service ceiling of 22,000 feet,
and a range of 1,460 miles. With a wingspan of 56 feet 4 inches, it was powered
by two 920-horsepower Bristol Mercury XV engines. Maximum bomb load was 1,325
pounds.<br />
</div>
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The Mark I version of the aircraft had the distinction of
flying the first Allied operational mission of the war, a reconnaissance over
Germany. Mark IV was used extensively as a light bomber and also as a fighter,
a reconnaissance aircraft, and a close-support aircraft. The aircraft was
crewed by three. A Mark V was developed, which increased the service ceiling to
31,000 feet and range to 1,600 miles. In other respects, however, its
performance was disappointing, and the Mark V was used almost exclusively in
the Far East.<br />
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Relatively slow by 1940s standards and with only light
defensive armament, the Blenheims were especially vulnerable to fighter attack.
They were withdrawn from the bomber role in 1943. About 6,200 (all versions)
were built. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">De Haviland Mosquito
XVI.</b> One of the war’s great aircraft, the Mosquito was flown as a night
fighter, fighter bomber, bomber, and reconnaissance plane. Crewed by two, it
had a remarkable top speed of 425 miles per hour and a service ceiling of
36,000 feet. In bomber configurations, the XVI version carried no defensive
armament but relied on its speed and maneuverability, which could outperform
most fighters. Maximum range was 3,500 miles.<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Affectionately dubbed the Mossie, the aircraft was first
flown late in 1940 and became operational with the RAF in 1942. It served in
Europe and Asia and proved so adaptable that it remained in service well after
the war, until 1955. A total of 7,781 (all versions) were built.<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Mark XVI version was driven by two 1,680- horsepower
Rolls Royce engines. Wingspan was 54 feet 2 inches, and maximum bomb load was
4,000 pounds.<br />
<br />
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</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fairey Battle I.</b>
Introduced in 1940, the Fairey Battle I was a two-place light day bomber
powered by a single Rolls-Royce Merlin II piston engine, which delivered 1,030
horsepower. With a 54-foot wingspan, it had a top speed of 241 miles per hour,
a service ceiling of 23,500 feet, and a range of 1,050 miles. Armed with a
forward-firing .303-inch fuselage- mounted Browning machine gun and a rear-facing
.303-inch Vickers K machine gun, the aircraft could carry a 1,000-pound bomb
load. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Deployed in France at the outbreak of the war in 1940, the
Fairey Battle quickly proved inadequate as a day bomber and was withdrawn from
such service very early in the war. However, it continued to operate with the
RAF as late as 1949 as a trainer, target tug, and communications aircraft. Some
2,200 were built. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Handley Page Halifax
VI.</b> This four-engine bomber first flew in prototype in 1939, and the first
Mark I version was delivered in 1940. The Mark VII entered production in 1944
and was powered by four 1,800-horsepower Hercules 100s and had a wingspan of
104 feet 2 inches. Maximum speed was 312 miles per hour with a service ceiling
of 24,000 feet and a range of 1,260 miles. Maximum bomb load was 13,000 pounds.
Although not nearly as well known as the Avro Lancaster, the Halifax was a
highly successful heavy bomber, produced in a quantity of 6,176 (all versions).<br />
<br />
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Handley Page Hampden
I</b>. Powered by two 1,000-horsepower Bristol Pegasus XVIII engines, this
medium bomber was designed beginning in 1933 and went into production in 1938.
With a wingspan of 69 feet 2 inches and a maximum bomb load of 4,000 pounds,
the aircraft could make 254 miles per hour and reach a service ceiling of
19,000 feet. Slow and vulnerable to fighters, it made its last bombing raid in
September 1942 and was used mainly for training purposes thereafter. A total of
1,430 were built.<br />
<br />
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<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Short Stirling III.</b>
The Mark I version of this large four-engine bomber was delivered to the RAF in
1940. The first Mark IIIs were flying by 1942. Powered by four 1,650-horsepower
Bristol Hercules XVI engines and with a wingspan of 99 feet 1 inch, this heavy
bomber could deliver 14,000 pounds of bombs. However, it soon proved unpopular
with aircrews because of its low ceiling (17,000 feet) and inadequate
maneuverability near its maximum altitude. By 1943, the Stirling III was
withdrawn from bombing missions and relegated to duty as a glider tug and
transport. Some were adapted as Mark IVs and used as paratroop transports. Total
production for all versions was 2,374.<br />
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Vickers Wellington
III.</b> First flown in prototype in 1936, the Mark I version of this medium
bomber entered RAF service in 1938. It proved successful in a variety of roles,
and 11,461 were produced before production ceased in October 1945. The Mark III
version was powered by two 1,375-horsepower Bristol Hercules III or two
1,425-horsepower Hercules XI engines. Top speed was 255 miles per hour, service
ceiling was 19,000 feet, and range was 1,540 miles. The aircraft could deliver
a bomb load of 4,500 pounds. Defensive weapons included eight .303-inch machine
guns, two in the nose, four in the tail turret, and two in fuselage positions.<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At the beginning of World War II, the Wellington was the
principal British bomber, and although it continued to fly bombing missions
until the end of the war, it was largely supplanted in this role by heavier,
four-engine bombers. The Wellington continued to be used very extensively for
antisubmarine attacks and for transport duties.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Bibliography</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bishop, Patrick.
Bomber Boys - Fighting Back 1940-1945. ISBN 978-0-00-719215-1.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Carter, Ian Bomber
Command 1939 - 1945. ISBN 978-0-7110-2699-5.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Don Charlwood No
Moon Tonight. ISBN 0-907579-06-X.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Childers, Thomas.
"'Facilis descensus averni est': The Allied Bombing of Germany and the
Issue of German Suffering," Central European History Vol. 38, No. 1
(2005), pp. 75–105 in JSTOR</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Garrett, Stephen
A. Ethics and Airpower in World War II: The British Bombing of German Cities
(1993)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Halpenny, Bruce
Barrymore. Action Stations: Military Airfields of Yorkshire v. 4. ISBN
978-0-85059-532-1.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Falconer,
Jonathan. Bomber Command Handbook 1939-1945. Sutton Publishing Limited. ISBN
0-7509-3171-X.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Grayling, A. C.
(2006). Among the Dead Cities. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-7671-6.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Halpenny, Bruce
Barrymore. Action Stations: Wartime Military Airfields of Lincolnshire and the
East Midlands v. 2. ISBN 978-0-85059-484-3.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Halpenny, Bruce
Barrymore. Bomber Aircrew of World War II: True Stories of Frontline Air
Combat. ISBN 978-1-84415-066-3.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Halpenny, Bruce
Barrymore. English Electric Canberra: The History and Development of a Classic
Jet. Pen & Sword, 2005. ISBN 978-1-84415-242-1.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore. To Shatter the
Sky: Bomber Airfield at War. ISBN 978-0-85059-678-6.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Harris, Arthur.
Despatch on War Operations (Cass Studies in Air Power). ISBN 978-0-7146-4692-3.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hastings, Max
(1979). RAF Bomber Command. Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-39204-2</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Koch, H. W.
"The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany: the Early Phase,
May–September 1940." The Historical Journal, 34 (March 1991) pp 117–41.
online at JSTOR</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lammers, Stephen
E. "William Temple and the bombing of Germany: an Exploration in the Just
War Tradition." Journal of Religious Ethics, 19 (Spring 1991): 71-93.
Explains how the Archbishop of Canterbury justified strategic bombing.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Messenger,
Charles. Bomber" Harris and the Strategic Bombing Offensive, 1939-1945
(1984), defends Harris</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Middlebrook,
Martin. The Peenemünde Raid: The Night of 17–18 August 1943. New York:
Bobs-Merrill, 1982.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Neufeld, Michael
J. The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile
Era. New York: The Free Press, 1995.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Overy. Richard.
"The Means to Victory: Bombs and Bombing" in Overy, Why the Allies
Won (1995), pp 101–33</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Peden, Murray. A
Thousand Shall Fall. ISBN 0-7737-5967-0.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Richards, Denis
(1953). Royal Air Force 1939-1945: Volume I The Fight at Odds. London: Her
Majesty's Stationary Office.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith, Malcolm.
"The Allied Air Offensive," Journal of Strategic Studies 13 (Mar
1990) 67-83</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taylor, Frederick.
(2005) Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945. Bloomsbury. ISBN 0-7475-7074-1</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Terraine, John. A
Time for Courage: The Royal Air Force in the European War, 1939-1945 (1985)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Verrier, Anthony.
The Bomber Offensive (1969)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Webster, Charles
and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939-1945
(HMSO, 1961), 4 vol. The major official British history</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wells, Mark K.
Courage and air warfare: the Allied aircrew experience in the Second World War
(1995)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Werrell, Kenneth
P. "The Strategic Bombing of Germany in World War II: Costs and
Accomplishments," Journal of American History 73 (1986) 702-713; in JSTOR</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-7376141932725990232015-04-23T19:00:00.001+08:002015-04-23T19:00:12.612+08:00Early Boeing B-17 Raids I<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Early in 1943,
the Boeing B-17E began to be replaced by the B-17F.</span></i></b><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB">In February 1942, just as Sir Arthur Harris
took over Bomber Command, the advance wave of what would become a flood of
hundreds of thousands of officers and airmen arrived in England from the United
States. The Americans had arrived. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">That advanced echelon included the
commander of the recently activated Eighth Air Force, Maj. Gen. Carl Spaatz. A
Mitchellite to the core, Spaatz appeared at Bomber Commands headquarters at
High Wycombe on February 23, 1942. He and Harris hit it off at once. They were
kindred souls with unshakable faith in the ability of airpower to win the war,
though they differed in the details. Thanks to the RAF s earlier hard knocks,
Bomber Command would stick to night attacks for die majority of the war. Spaatz
believed that the latest-generation B - I 7 had all the defensive armament
needed to conduct long-range missions in the teeth of Luftwaffe fighter
interception. If flown in close, mutually protective formations, a B-I7 group
could field all-round defense with literally hundreds of deadly .50-caliber
machine guns. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Through the spring, aircraft and men
trickled in from the United States. It was not an impressive force at first,
and on the streets of London there was much gossip about the big-talking
Americans who had yet to actually measure up to their own words. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The measuring up would take time. First,
the USAAF had to learn hard lessons of its own.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">That summer, the first of the heavy bomb
groups arrived in Great Britain. The 97th earned that honor, setting up
operations at RAF Polebrook. Flying the new B-I7E, the 97th lacked training,
experience and tactical knowledge. Some of the navigators didn't know how to
navigate. Some of the radio operators couldn't even read or send Morse code.
Few of the men had ever conducted flights over 20,000 feet. In fact, most had
never even strapped on their oxygen masks. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">And yet, the 97th would serve as the seed
unit for what would become the most massive air effort ever put forth by the
United States. Everything has a start point, no matter how successful or not.
For the Mighty Eighth, it began on August 17, 1942, when the 97th carried out a
twelve-plane raid against a railroad marshalling yard at Rouen, France. Over a
hundred Royal Air Force Spitfires provided heavy escort force for the bombers.
Experience had shown the Luftwaffe s fighter units in France, which included
the elite Jagdgeschwader 26, could be deadly effective adversaries in their new
Focke-Wulf 190 "Butcher Birds." </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Flying in a B-17 named Yankee Doodle on
that first mission was Gen. Ira Eaker, head of VIII Bomber Command. He'd come
along to see for himself how the 97th would fare. The co-pilot of Butcher Bird,
the lead aircraft that day was Maj. Paul Tibbets. In 1945, Tibbets would pilot
the Enola Gay over Hiroshima and his crew would drop the first atomic bomb used
in battle. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The raid succeeded beyond all expectations.
The dozen Forts dropped almost 40,000 pounds of British-built bombs on the
target area. Post-strike reconnaissance showed an impressive, tight pattern to
the destruction wrought on the ground. The Norden bombsight appeared to be a
wonder device after all. Nothing the British could do at night matched this
level of accuracy. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">What's more, not a single B-17 went down.
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evening at Polebrook. There wouldn't be many good days ahead like this one. In
fact, two missions later, a Messerschmitt made a pass at Tibbetts' B-17. A 20
mm cannon shell exploded in the cockpit, which wounded him with shrapnel and
nearly took his co-pilot's left hand off. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Still, the Rouen raid served as a good
beginning for the nascent Eighth Air Force. It also made excellent propaganda
and quieted the British down for awhile. To counter that English attitude,
Spaatz took to carrying recon photos of strike damage in his pocket. He'd pull
them out and show the results of precision bombing to anyone who wanted to take
a look. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Elated at the results, Spaatz and Eaker set
about laying the foundations for the massive force they hoped to field against
Germany. Through the summer and fall, new bomb groups reached England,
including the 303rd and 93rd. The 1st Fighter Group and its P-38s flew across
the Atlantic to join VITT Fighter Command. In time, the 31st, 52nd, and 4th
Fighter Groups would form the initial core of the available escort force. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Through the rest of the fall, the Eighth
Air Force devoted most of its energy against U-boat targets in support of the
campaign in the North Atlantic. These deeply unpopular missions contributed
little to the Allied cause. By this time, the U-boat pens in the French ports
like St. Nazaire had been reinforced with a twenty foot concrete roof. The
bombs the B-17s did get on these targets exploded harmlessly on the surface of
these massive structures. Worse, the missions exposed the B-17 crews to heavy
fighter and anti-aircraft attack. For the men who laid their lives on the line
daily to carry out these sorties, such a ridiculous target selection frustrated
and demoralized them. </span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-64704119019715276312015-04-23T18:50:00.001+08:002015-04-23T18:50:04.652+08:00Early Boeing B-17 Raids II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj06we2MO7btYWvvkkn0Ety3oPLifhssP7ZwYRXui26Ctb9WzCEb70r0jUtRpDliX5g5Qp7CvuuFiyi44tS1Wm0hLyt4TKm4wbVJeXt9oopzPZPGlbK6qSUPQVLtSVToswBzyI1ObMyQDY/s1600/hgmmhgjhmg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj06we2MO7btYWvvkkn0Ety3oPLifhssP7ZwYRXui26Ctb9WzCEb70r0jUtRpDliX5g5Qp7CvuuFiyi44tS1Wm0hLyt4TKm4wbVJeXt9oopzPZPGlbK6qSUPQVLtSVToswBzyI1ObMyQDY/s1600/hgmmhgjhmg.jpg" height="290" width="400" /></a></div>
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table.MsoNormalTable
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mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
mso-para-margin-left:0in;
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mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Later in August, the Eighth Air Force flew its first
combat mission. Flying B-17Es, the 97th Bomb Group struck rail targets at
Rouen, France, without loss. It was an auspicious beginning to what would
become one of the longest attritional campaigns in U.S. history. Here, a
squadron of B-17s forms up over England in preparation for a mission in 1942.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Meanwhile, the build-up gained steam until
Operation Torch derailed everything. This was the invasion of Northwest Africa
by a combined Anglo-American force. To carry out this operation, the Allies
needed every available plane to support it. The Eighth was stripped of most of
its fighter units, including the 1st, 31st, and 52nd groups, and lost some of
its B-17 outfits as well. Spaatz and Eaker protested to no avail. Eventually,
the Eighth lost 1,250 aircraft and 30,000 men. The bombing campaign came to a
crashing halt. In December, the Eighth lost its talented commander, General
Spaatz to the Mediterranean theater as well. Ira Eaker took his place It would
not be until the following January that the fledglings in England would
commence large-scale bombing operations against Nazi-held Europe. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">As the Americans arrived in England, then
had their build-up derailed by Torch, Bomber Command's night raids began to
cause substantial damage. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The 1943 campaign would soon begin, and
with it would come die first major contributions by the USAAF and its new fleet
of heavy bombers. Exactly how that effort would be carried out in cooperation
with the RAF dominated top-level discussions for the remainder of 1942, and
during the Churchill-Roosevelt meeting at Casablanca in January 1943. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The RAF wanted the Americans to join the
night bombing effort. Convert the Eighth Air Force to nocturnal operations and
the Allies could have a force of thousands hitting Germany by moonlight before
the end of 1943. The USAAF recoiled at the idea. The entire structure of its
strategic force had been predicated on daylight precision bombing. All the
Stateside training was geared toward this effort. Switching to night operations
would require a wholesale reconstruction of the strategic bomber force. Hap
Arnold, commander of the mid-1943. To the USAAF's materials command, hanging
gas tanks under a fighter was an anathema that would ruin the aircraft's
manoeuvrability in combat. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">It would take time to sort out the fuel
tank issue and the tactics. In the meantime, the B-I 7 and B-24 crews paid the
price. The 1943 campaign would prove once and for all that if the bombers were
to survive deep penetration raids into Germany, the Mighty Eighth had to have
fighters that could go the distance with them. Wartime experience proved Billy
Mitchell right: fighter and bomber had to work together just like combined
operations in ground warfare. The cost to learn that lesson envisioned two
decades before by America's most famous airpower theorist would be dreadfully
high.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The USAAF, could not let that happen. Yet,
Churchill had already nearly sold Roosevelt on the idea of doing this. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">During the Casablanca conference in January,
he cabled Eaker and told him it was up to him to save the daylight bombing
campaign. Eaker had majored in journalism in college. He sat down and drafted a
tight, one-page summary for Churchill that outlined all the reasons why
converting the Eighth Air Force to night operations would be folly. The final
sentence captured the Prime Minister's imagination.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">"If the RAF continues bombing at night
and we bomb by day, we shall bomb them round the clock and the devil shall do
the rest." </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Both leaders loved the idea of "round
the clock bombing." The British would batter the Germans at night while
from dawn to sunset the Americans would rule the skies. Twenty-four seven,
Germany would receive no respite from the aerial bombardment. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">After Casablanca, Eaker and one of his
subordinates, General Hansell, sat down with two RAF counterparts and drafted a
detailed plan for the 1943 air campaign. Called the Combined Bomber Offensive,
the document set seventeen key target types to be attacked and destroyed during
the year. The top three included: 1) the German aircraft industry, 2) ball
bearings factories, and 3) Germany's oil refining infrastructure. Harris and
Bomber Command would still make destruction of German morale its key objective
for the year. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">For both sides, 1943 would be a pivotal
period in the strategic air war. Of course, as with most wartime ventures,
nothing went as planned.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-35491344845848267292015-04-23T18:46:00.005+08:002015-04-23T18:46:52.584+08:00Lesson in terror <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghTiIZjNfPWdx9jLvEmetYFXvPwUgUrzqNZqyzoux1VBlk8zP_Hg1AQNiiXgu6u7cxA32zNcZc026unNIXA6RqWBhLDK6gYT4e6Lm_s2wHP-DY7HxviJpMHs8CW9ZLPib00CxuD_hoPPg/s1600/9a1ede_702bf5e7ebd748ddbe073d355d51ff63.jpg_srz_914_474_85_22_0.50_1.20_0.00_jpg_srz.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghTiIZjNfPWdx9jLvEmetYFXvPwUgUrzqNZqyzoux1VBlk8zP_Hg1AQNiiXgu6u7cxA32zNcZc026unNIXA6RqWBhLDK6gYT4e6Lm_s2wHP-DY7HxviJpMHs8CW9ZLPib00CxuD_hoPPg/s1600/9a1ede_702bf5e7ebd748ddbe073d355d51ff63.jpg_srz_914_474_85_22_0.50_1.20_0.00_jpg_srz.jpg" height="206" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">“It is probable that future war will be conducted by a
special class, the air force, as it was by the armored knights of the Middle
Ages.” BRIGADIER GENERAL WILLIAM “BILLY” MITCHELL WINGED DEFENSE, 1924</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">By 1918 there was a solid weight of opinion
in the Allied countries calling for a bombing offensive against Germany, and
frustration among political leaders at the military’s failure to deliver it. In
April 1918, Britain created the world’s first independent air force, the Royal
Air Force, to replace the army’s Royal Flying Corps and the navy’s Royal Naval
Air Service. It was intended, among other things, to help give Britain more
effective air defences, and to promote a strategic air offensive against
Germany. The Independent Force of bombers was set up in June to carry out this
offensive. Meanwhile the French commander-in-chief, Marshal Henri Pétain,
called for a fleet of heavy bombers to “paralyze the economic life of Germany
and its war industries by methodical and repeated action against principal
industrial cities…”. In 1918 the Allies had the de Havilland-designed Airco
D.H.9 and excellent Breguet Br.14 as day bombers and the Handley Page O/400 and
Caproni biplanes and triplanes as night bombers. The Handley Page, although
nothing like as big as the German R-planes, could carry a maximum bombload of
900kg (2,000lb), and formed the backbone of the Independent Force. Other heavy
bombers, including the French Farman Goliath and the British Vickers Vimy, were
under construction in 1918 but arrived too late to see service.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In the summer and autumn of 1918,
formations of up to 40 Allied bombers flew raids deep into Germany.
Predictably, bad weather and unreliable aircraft limited the effectiveness of
the bomber offensive. But civilians in cities such as Frankfurt and Mannheim
were taught the terror of air-raids that had already been experienced by
inhabitants of Paris and London. Allied airmen were always under orders to aim
for precise targets, such as factories or communications centres. But Allied
political leaders were keen to affect civilian morale. The British Secretary of
State for air, William Weir, told Hugh Trenchard, the commander of the
Independent Force, not to be scrupulous in respect for civilian life: “If I
were you,” he wrote, “I would not be too exacting as regards accuracy in
bombing railway stations in the middle of towns. The German is susceptible to
bloodiness, and I would not mind a few accidents due to inaccuracy.” </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In fact, the air commanders were generally
more sceptical about strategic bombing than the politicians. Trenchard knew he
was supposed to use his force to bomb German cities and factories, but more
often he directed it against tactical objectives such as airfields and
communications centres behind the front. The same is true of US General Billy
Mitchell. Both Trenchard and Mitchell later became advocates of strategic
bombing, but they devoted themselves in the last months of the war to the
tactical use of airpower. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The evidence of World War I was that, at
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industrial production nor significantly weaken a population’s will to fight.
Bombing was costly and inaccurate. Its chief positive effect lay in forcing the
enemy to divert resources to air defence. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The building and operation of large bomber
aircraft was nonetheless an important step in the progress of aviation. Bomber
aircrews had accumulated extensive experience of long-distance flight and night
flying, and the large aircraft they flew carrying bombs could, with relatively
small modifications, carry passengers or freight instead. Strategic bombing in
the Great War helped pave the way for the development of commercial aviation –
as well as the devastation of Dresden, Tokyo, and Hiroshima.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-27696410275646155122015-04-23T18:46:00.001+08:002015-04-23T18:46:15.878+08:00ARTHUR HARRIS, (nicknamed ‘‘Bomber’’ Harris, 1892–1984) <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKW_dQjpyY_ZW3FVT0vJq3lwV95-e04BeGP-PddZWYhhYOmiJuuVg55Es3rpN6TuRlENBV9tebx-lD9jPo9xz73dNZTXGJr6hW-irCUaujIjPdLzLbSMPqiOoAo6bCF7pDhKWCnTi0Z_c/s1600/Air_Chief_Marshal_Sir_Arthur_Harris.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKW_dQjpyY_ZW3FVT0vJq3lwV95-e04BeGP-PddZWYhhYOmiJuuVg55Es3rpN6TuRlENBV9tebx-lD9jPo9xz73dNZTXGJr6hW-irCUaujIjPdLzLbSMPqiOoAo6bCF7pDhKWCnTi0Z_c/s1600/Air_Chief_Marshal_Sir_Arthur_Harris.jpg" height="400" width="303" /></a></div>
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Chief of the British Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command
from 1942 to 1945.<br />
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Born at Cheltenham in Gloucestershire, the son of an
engineer-architect in the Indian civil service, Arthur Harris was educated at
Gore Court, Sittingbourne, and Allhallows, Honiton. In 1914 Harris joined the
first Rhodesian Regiment as a bugler and took part in the campaign against
German South-West Africa. In 1915 he returned to Britain and was commissioned
into the Royal Flying Corps. He participated in defensive night fighter
operations against zeppelin raids and also served on the western front, where
he earned enough victories to qualify as an air ace. After the war, he took a
permanent commission in the RAF and was involved in air operations in northwest
India, Iraq, and Palestine. In 1939 Harris was given command of No. 5 (Bomber)
Group, which did valuable work against German shipping concentrations and
airfields during the invasion threat in 1940. Later that year he became deputy
chief of the Air Staff and in 1941 was appointed head of the RAF delegation to
Washington, where he sought to speed up the delivery of aircraft and air
supplies. In 1942 he was summoned back to Britain to become commander in chief
of Bomber Command. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Under Harris, Bomber Command developed into a formidable
weapon of war. His favored method of attack was the area bombing of German
cities at night. He did not invent the policy—it was already in operation from
1941— but he pursued it with relentless zeal. He firmly believed that the
destruction of German cities and the homes of the workers would bring the enemy
to its knees and prevent a repetition of the bloody battles of attrition on the
western front that he had witnessed during the previous war. While the United
States Air Force concentrated on precision attacks during the day as part of a
combined bomber offensive, Bomber Command unleashed a series of large-scale
raids on such cities as Essen, Hamburg, and Berlin. The zenith of the area
bombing campaign came at Dresden in February 1945, when the RAF started a
massive firestorm that devastated the old city and killed between twenty-five
and thirty-five thousand people. </div>
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Since the war the military and ethical justifications for
Harris’s area bombing policy have been called into question. The critics argue
that the results of the bombing were not worth the heavy cost in RAF aircrew
lives, that the extensive resources poured into Bomber Command could have been
put to better use, and that the deliberate targeting of German civilians was an
unacceptable means of waging war. Harris’s defenders, however, contend that the
bombing played a significant role in the Allied victory in Europe. Although the
bombing did not prevent a sustained increase in German military production or
fatally undermine civilian morale, the effects of the Anglo-American bombing
offensive—and it is difficult to consider one in isolation from the other—were
considerable. For example, a ceiling was placed on the growth of military
output, and factories were diverted to producing items for home defense such as
antiaircraft guns and ammunition, which deprived the German army of vital
battlefield equipment. Many German troops were tied up in antiaircraft duties
when they could have been more usefully employed on other fighting fronts, and
German offensive airpower was restricted as the Luftwaffe was forced to defend
the Reich against air attack. While the bombing of cities was undoubtedly a
dreadful way to wage war, this was regarded at the time as little different
from the policy of targeting civilians through blockade or siege in previous
wars. The Allies were engaged in a war of survival against a brutal totalitarian
regime, and civilian workers were at the heart of the enemy’s war potential.
Certainly Harris, who had watched London burn during the Blitz, had little
sympathy for the Germans: they had sown the wind and would reap the whirlwind. </div>
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At the end of the war Harris was embittered by the seeming
reluctance of the British government to acknowledge the role of Bomber Command
in the defeat of Germany. He retired from the RAF and went to live in South
Africa. In the 1950s he returned to Britain and spent his latter years quietly
in rural Oxfordshire, with occasional forays onto the public stage. He died in
1984. In 1992 a statue of Harris was unveiled by the Queen Mother in London.
The mayors of Dresden and other cities that had been heavily bombed expressed their
disapproval. The Bomber Command veterans regarded it as a long overdue tribute
to a much maligned commander.</div>
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Harris, Sir Arthur. Bomber Offensive. London,
1947. Overy, R. J. ‘‘Harris, Sir Arthur Travers, First Baronet (1892– 1984).’’
In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, edited by H. C. G. Matthew and
Brian Harrison. Oxford, U.K., 2004. Probert, Henry. Bomber Harris: His Life and
Times. London, 2001.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-62002497002880460472015-04-23T18:45:00.001+08:002015-04-23T18:45:23.763+08:00RAF Bomber Command and Strategic Bombing<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the initial stages of the war, the RAF had been loath to
attack German industrial targets, despite the doctrine of strategic bombing.
During the battles for France and Britain, Bomber Command had been reduced to
attacking German shipping and invasion force transport. Some successful raids
against Luftwaffe airfields occurred with good results. The turning point for
the strategic air campaign occurred on the night of 23 September 1940, when 84 bombers
attacked Berlin. Although bomb damage and RAF losses were minimal, the RAF had
commenced the practice of night bombing first industrial (especially oil) and
infrastructure and later civilian targets. In 1942 the Avro Lancaster heavy
bomber arrived in numbers. Having a range of more than 1,600 miles and capable
of carrying 22,000 lb of bombs, the Lancaster was Britain’s mainstay heavy
bomber of World War II, and it enabled Bomber Command to carry the air war deep
into Germany. The Lancaster Mark II, which appeared in 1943, had a range of
2,250 miles and could carry 14,000 lb of bombs. However, night navigation and
target identification proved highly problematic. With no visual reference aids
at night, bomber crews relied on Pathfinders. First fielded in August 1942,
Pathfinder aircraft flew ahead of the formations, identified targets, and
dropped color-coded marker flares. As the war progressed, electronic navigation
improved, including the relatively primitive radio set known as “Gee,” followed
by the more-sophisticated blind-bombing device called “Trinity.” The latter was
a precursor of the advanced “Oboe” system, which employed a
ground-distance-measuring station. The H2S system provided a radar display
indicating prominent geographic features such as rivers, coastline, and urban
structures, thus providing the hitherto missing navigational landmarks. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Night-bombing accuracy always suffered compared with the
daylight assaults carried out by the B-17s and B-24s of the U.S. Army Air
Forces (USAAF) Eighth Air Force beginning in 1943. To counter the night
bombing, the Luftwaffe developed efficient night fighters and relied on massed
antiaircraft artillery. When the Blitz ended, Bomber Command increased the
intensity of night strategic bombing. In a night raid on Hamburg on 8 May 1941,
300 bombers dropped several new 4,000 lb bombs. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 22 February 1942, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris
took charge of Bomber Command. An energetic and enthusiastic advocate of terror
bombing, Harris resolved to bludgeon Germany into submission. Night bombing of
industrial targets increased immediately. To underscore the new attitude (and
the advantage of the Lancasters with improved electronic navigation and
targeting gear), Harris ordered the first thousand-bomber raid, which struck
the German city of Köln (Cologne) on 30 May 1942. Simultaneously, the newly
fielded and capable De Havilland Mosquito quickly established itself as an
extraordinary melding of mission capabilities, including reconnaissance,
bomber, fighter-bomber, and night fighter. Under Harris, British strategic
night bombing increased in intensity, capability, and destructive force for the
next three years.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The major Allied strategic raids against Germany included
the following: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
May 30–31, 1942: A British raid on Cologne destroyed most of
the center city at a cost of 41 bombers. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
July 24, 1943: A combined British and American incendiary
raid against Hamburg created a firestorm in which some 50,000 civilians were
killed. (Bomber losses are unknown.) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
August 1, 1943: The Ploe<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ş</span>ti raid targeted refineries in
this Romanian city. The U.S. Army Air Force (Eighth and Ninth Air Forces) lost
50 planes, but did inflict major damage— which, however, was soon repaired. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
August 17, 1943: The Schweinfurt raids targeted German
ball-bearing production. The U.S. raid on this day also targeted Regensburg, a
major center of aircraft production. The factories were damaged, but not put
out of commission, and the loss to U.S. Eighth Army Air Force bombers was
heavy: 60 bombers lost, 122 badly damaged. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
August 17, 1943: The British raid on Peenemünde (V-2 base)
caused serious damage to missile launch facilities, but these were soon
repaired. The RAF lost 69 heavy bombers. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
October 14, 1943: In another U.S. Eighth Army Air Force raid
on Schweinfurt, 60 bombers were lost and 138 damaged; however, the ball-bearing
plants were destroyed—only to be quickly rebuilt. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
November 18, 1943–March 31, 1944: The British RAF conducted
some 35 raids against Berlin during this period, each raid consisting of more
than 500 aircraft. Damage to the city was extensive, but 1,047 bombers were
lost during the offensive. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
February 20–26, 1944: Known as “Big Week,” this U.S.
offensive targeted German aircraft factories and wiped out about half of
Germany’s fighter production capacity. Losses to the Eighth, Ninth, and
Fifteenth U.S. Army Air Forces were 226 bombers. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
March 11, 1944: A British raid on the oil and railroad
facilities at Essen was highly successful and was carried out with negligible
losses. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
February 13–14, 1945: U.S. and British bombers targeted the
medieval city of Dresden with heavy incendiaries, which created a massive
firestorm that razed the city and killed 135,000 German civilians. Losses to
the Allies were no more than six bombers. Given its high cost in civilian lives
and its occurrence so late in the war, this was the most controversial
strategic raid of the war’s European theater. Allied critics charged that it
was motivated by nothing more “strategic” than a thirst for vengeance.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As the list of major strategic bombing missions suggests,
the cost in equipment and the lives of aircrews was high. The effectiveness of
strategic bombing was bitterly debated both during the war and after it.
Proponents claimed that it significantly reduced the German capacity to make
war. Critics contended that strategic bombing wasted the lives of aircrews and,
because it targeted civilians, was inherently immoral. Most likely, an accurate
assessment of strategic bombing lies between the extremes of “decisive factor”
and “marginally effective adjunct.”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Further reading:</b>
Biddle, Tami Davis. Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: The Evolution of
British and American Ideas about Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945. Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 2004; Knell, Hermann. To Destroy a City: Strategic
Bombing and Its Human Consequences in World War II. New York: Da Capo Press,
2003; Ross, Stewart Halsey. Strategic Bombing by the United States in World War
II: The Myths and the Facts. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2002.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-43373075758363443142015-04-23T18:43:00.001+08:002015-04-23T18:43:12.316+08:00COMBINED BOMBER OFFENSIVE (CBO) <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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When Western Allied leaders met at the Casablanca Conference
(January 14–24, 1943) the Combined Chiefs of Staff agreed that the USAAF and
the RAF should coordinate bombing of Germany. The USAAF agreed to bomb by day—the
preferred method of those who still believed in precision bombing —while RAF
Bomber Command conducted area bombing by night. The directive for the CBO
combined all threads of thinking about the functions of strategic bombing:
destruction of enemy transportation and communications nets, retardation of war
production, and conscious and deliberate suppression of civilian morale. Within
the overall strategic directive given to the Western Allied air forces was a
list of “primary objectives.” Listed by priority, these were: U-boat pens, the
German aircraft industry, transportation and communications targets, synthetic
oil facilities, and oil fields. The “Casablanca Directive” gave the CBO more
apparent coherence than bombing yet displayed in fact, or was capable of
achieving. Tensions persisted between airmen intent on using morale bombing as
a supposed war-winning weapon and those who saw bombing’s major contribution to
the war as wrecking critical areas of enemy production and preparing the way
for a ground invasion through carefully targeted tactical strikes. Arthur
Harris of RAF Bomber Command reinterpreted the Directive in ways that allowed
him to continue to conduct the morale bombing he preferred. Though not as
baldly, USAAF chiefs similarly interpreted the Directive to fit what they were
already doing. </div>
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Harris launched a series of “air battles” during 1943, which
he argued would prove decisive. The first was fought in the smog-filled skies
above the Ruhr Valley, starting on March 5. Over the next four months bombers
pounded Ruhr cities and industries, taking heavy casualties over the most
heavily defended territory in Germany. Nuremberg, Essen, Dortmund, Duisburg,
and Düsseldorf were all attacked multiple times. Bochum, Oberhausen, and
smaller cities were also hit. Over 1,000 Allied aircraft were lost in the Ruhr
campaign. While heavy damage was done and much loss of German life incurred,
the Ruhr continued to produce critical resources for the German war economy.
Harris ordered bombing of other German cities, including Cologne. A series of
four great raids (GOMORRAH) by 3,000 heavy bombers of RAF Bomber Command
carried out from July 24 to August 2, 1943, destroyed half of Hamburg. The
raids created a firestorm that burned out hundreds of war factories and killed
thousands of workers, while “de-housing” many thousands more. That set back
German war production in Hamburg, making the argument over targeting doctrine even
more complicated. </div>
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<br /></div>
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At the first Québec Conference (August 17–24, 1943), official
emphasis on morale bombing was dropped in favor of attacking clearly listed,
high-value targets. Among these, the highest priority was given to smashing the
Luftwaffe’s fighter force and slowing fighter production by bombing aircraft
factories. In fact, such priority targeting had been undertaken since May. But
in accordance with the Québec directive, U.S. 8th Air Force attempted two
precision raids on the critical and heavily defended fighter and ball-bearing
works at Schweinfurt, with a companion raid against Regensburg. Carried out on
August 17 and October 14, 1943, the Schweinfurt raids were a turning point in
the air war. Out of 376 American bombers that made the first raid, 147 never
saw their home airfields again. The second raid was even more disastrous: 60
bombers were shot down and 142 badly damaged out of a force of 291. The
Americans did not try to hit Schweinfurt again until February 1944. The focus
of Bomber Command turned to the Berlin bomber offensive through the winter of
1943–1944, while the USAAF reconsidered the wisdom of its entire approach to
bombing Germany.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The official 1944 focus on reducing German fighter
production and luring existing fighters into battle to be destroyed before the
OVERLORD campaign was made possible by the advent of long-range American
fighters. P-51 Mustangs equipped with drop tanks capable of escorting bombers
deep into Germany turned the air war decisively and permanently in favor of the
Western Allies. Rising confidence and air dominance led to the “Big Week” operation,
a massive six-day bombing campaign (February 20–25, 1944) code named ARGUMENT.
It was carried out by the U.S. 8th, 9th, and 15th Army Air Forces based in
Britain and Italy and by RAF Bomber Command. Over 6,150 bombers were involved
in a week-long assault on Luftwaffe fighter factories and bases. The Western
Allies lost 411 aircraft, including several dozen fighters. It is believed that
“Big Week” seriously interrupted fighter manufacture for several months,
although production did not begin terminal decline until September. “Big Week”
certainly damaged Luftwaffe morale, which was already low from chronic
attrition and persistent failure to stop the bombers. This phase of the CBO was
crucially important. It severely attrited Luftwaffe pilots and thereby
established air supremacy over the landing zones in France in time for the
invasion of Normandy in June. The air battle over Germany also eliminated many
experienced Luftwaffe pilots. Thereafter, German fighter pilot skills were
noticeably lessened and Western Allied kill ratios climbed. With long-range
escort fighters available by mid-1944, even Bomber Command began carrying out
more daylight precision raids. Fighter attrition continued over Germany during
the last months of 1944 and into 1945, when the hugely controversial— though
operationally not distinctive— Dresden raid was carried out, among other city
bombings.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Suggested Reading: Tami Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air
Warfare: The Evolution of British and American Ideas about Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945
(2002).</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3160055661414697279.post-79782505673096975382015-04-23T18:39:00.002+08:002015-04-23T18:39:57.574+08:00Air Battle of Berlin, (November 1943– March 1944)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Picture taken from one of the bombers of the first RAF night rain on
Berlin. The diagonal street on the top is the Charlottenburger Chaussee, the
light flashes were beams from the anti-aircraft searchlights.</i></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">SUNDAY, AUGUST 25,
1940: FIRST RAF NIGHT RAID ON BERLIN: 81 bombers despatched, but many fail to
find target; slight damage in city centre and suburbs. Raids on other targets
include Cologne, Hamm and Boulogne. Total losses: 5 aircraft.</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Between November 1943 and March 1944, the Royal Air Force
(RAF) Bomber Command conducted 16 raids on the German capital in an attempt to
defeat Germany by destroying Berlin. This effort was the third in a series of
campaigns in 1943, with the first levied against German industrial production
in the Ruhr Valley from April to July and the second launched against the city
of Hamburg late in July. </div>
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The largest city in Germany, Berlin covered nearly 900
square miles. Attacking it not only would strike at the seat of power in the
Third Reich but also would cripple a major industrial base for the German armed
forces. Factories in Berlin contributed one-third of the Reich’s electrical
components as well as one-quarter of the army’s tanks and half its field
artillery. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Bolstered by the success of recent air raids, in particular
the attack on Hamburg, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur “Bomber” Harris believed he
could do the same with Berlin and force a German surrender. If he could get the
Americans to join in, he expected losses to be between 400 and 500 aircraft. However,
because of its own recent heavy losses over Germany, the U.S. Army Eighth Air
Force would not able to participate. Despite this setback, Harris received
approval in early November 1943 from Prime Minister Winston L. S. Churchill to
begin the bomber offensive. He employed the RAF’s new Avro Lancaster heavy
bomber, as this four-engine aircraft had the requisite range to strike targets
deep in German territory. The first raid, the largest battle Bomber Command had
yet fought, occurred on the night of 18–19 November. </div>
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Attacking heavily defended Berlin was not an easy task. The
city was ringed with a flak belt 40 miles wide and a searchlight band over 60
miles across. The defense centered on 24 128-mm antiaircraft guns grouped in
eight-gun batteries on flak towers. Additionally, the city’s extensive subway
system provided underground shelter for the civilians. Only the Ruhr region was
more heavily defended. </div>
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The British employed Window—strips of foil dropped from
aircraft to jam German radar. To counter this, the Germans organized groups of
single-engine fighters to attack the bombers as they were caught in
searchlights. The Germans called this new tactic Wilde Sau (Wild Boar), and the
technique helped them until they could develop effective radar. By early 1944,
German night-fighter aircraft—primarily Ju- 88s, FW-190s, and Bf-109s—were
successfully employing bomber-intercept tactics with the help of SN2, an
aircraft-based, air-to-air radar that would cause Bomber Command’s losses to
approach 9 percent for a single raid. To make matters worse for the British,
many bombs did not come close to their desired targets, as chronically poor
weather over Berlin forced pathfinders to mark targets blindly, relying
exclusively on H2S radar; this problem was exacerbated by the fact that the
number of experienced pathfinder radar operators dwindled as casualties mounted
during the campaign. </div>
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The Battle of Berlin came to an end in March 1944 when the
bombers passed under the control of the Supreme Allied Command to prepare for
the Normandy Invasion. During the offensive, Bomber Command flew 9,111 sorties
to the “Big City” and dropped 31,000 tons of bombs. Bomber Command lost 497
aircraft—5.5 percent of the force employed—and more than 3,500 British aircrew
were killed or captured. On the German side, nearly 10,000 civilians were
killed, and 27 percent of the built-up area of Berlin was destroyed. Harris’s
goal of defeating Germany was not, however, realized.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">References</b>
Cooper, Alan W. Bombers over Berlin: The RAF Offensive, November 1943–March
1944. Northhamptonshire, UK: Patrick Stevens, 1985. Middelbrook, Martin. The
Berlin Raids: RAF Bomber Command, Winter 1943–44. London: Cassell, 1988.
Neillands, Robin. The Bomber War: The Allied Air Offensive against Nazi
Germany. New York: Overlook Press, 2001.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0